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Giorgio Agamben: Power, Law and the Uses of Criticism (Nomikoi: Critical Legal Thinkers)
by Thanos ZartaloudisGiorgio Agamben: Power, Law and the Uses of Criticism is a thorough engagement with the thought of the influential Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben. It explores Agamben’s work on language, ontology, power, law and criticism from the 1970s to his most recent publications. Introducing Agamben's work to a readership in legal theory, as well as in the humanities and social sciences more generally, Thanos Zartaloudis argues that an adequate understanding of Agamben's Homo Sacer project requires an attention to his earlier philosophical writings on language, ontology, power and time. It is through this attentive and creative analysis of Agamben's work that Zartaloudis here presents a rethinking of the ideas of justice and criticism.
Land Law and Urban Policy in Context: Essays on the Contributions of Patrick McAuslan (Birkbeck Law Press)
by Thanos ZartaloudisThis book is a collection of essays honouring and engaging with the work of the late Professor Patrick McAuslan. It is a collection that narrates, analyses and critiques McAuslan’s contributions, as well as offering substantive perspectives on how his work has impacted the legal fields in which he was involved: including those of land law, urban planning law and policy, land use and participation in developing countries, democratic constitutionalism, and legal education. The essays present McAuslan’s contributions in the contexts in which they emerged, and according to both the circumstances and motivations that shaped them, as well as the challenges they encountered. It thus provides an ideal point of engagement for scholars, students and policy makers that have already interacted with McAuslan’s ideas and work, or who have yet to do so.
Gain-based Remedies for Breach of Contract: A Comparative Analysis of English and Polish Law
by Daniel ZatorskiThis book focuses on an emerging problem in English contract law: what should be done when a party has been unjustly enriched as the result of a breach of contract but there is no measurable loss suffered by said party? Two rulings are at the heart of the book: Wrotham Park Estate v Parkside Homes and Attorney-General v Blake. These two cases can be said to have established gain-based remedies in English contract law. However, the principles that underpin these remedies are not entirely clear and are subject to debate.This book analyses these principles through the lens of compensatory and restitutionary approaches. Moreover, it applies a comparative analysis of these approaches through the lens of the civil law jurisdiction in Poland.Since the term ‘compensation’ is not a universal concept, the book distinguishes between two rationales in the compensatory analysis. The first, reparative compensation, is defined as a form of monetary recompense for loss or damage actually suffered. The second, substitutive compensation, represents a monetary equivalent to a right that a person has been deprived of or denied. Both rationales require the application of a broad notion of loss in order to make gain-based remedies workable in both English and Polish law.In contrast, ‘restitution’ states that a person cannot be permitted to profit from their own wrongdoing. Based on this principle, the book argues that gain-based remedies could be applied under Polish law through the rules of unjust enrichment. However, in order to do so, a broader understanding of the subtraction prerequisite (the enrichment being at the aggrieved party’s expense) would have to be adopted. The book concludes that unjust enrichment is a more natural way of implementing gain-based remedies in civil law jurisdictions.
Punishing Immigrants: Policy, Politics, and Injustice (New Perspectives in Crime, Deviance, and Law #15)
by Marjorie S. Zatz Ramiro Martínez Charis E. KubrinArizona's controversial new immigration bill is just the latest of many steps in the new criminalization of immigrants. While many cite the presumed criminality of illegal aliens as an excuse for ever-harsher immigration policies, it has in fact been well-established that immigrants commit less crime, and in particular less violent crime, than the native-born and that their presence in communities is not associated with higher crime rates. Punishing Immigrants moves beyond debunking the presumed crime and immigration linkage, broadening the focus to encompass issues relevant to law and society, immigration and refugee policy, and victimization, as well as crime. The original essays in this volume uncover and identify the unanticipated and hidden consequences of immigration policies and practices here and abroad at a time when immigration to the U.S. is near an all-time high. Ultimately, Punishing Immigrants illuminates the nuanced and layered realities of immigrants' lives, describing the varying complexities surrounding immigration, crime, law, and victimization. Podcast: Susan Bibler Coutin, on the process and effects of deportation --Listen here.
La guerra en palabras
by Oswaldo ZavalaUna historia intelectual de la hegemonía que funcionó como la plataforma para lanzar la “guerra contra el narco”: primero desde un plano simbólico y después como una campaña permanente de violencia organizada. Basado en una investigación de archivos oficiales, reportajes periodísticos, estudios académicos y producciones culturales sobre el tráfico de drogas, Oswaldo Zavala revisa el arco histórico del lenguaje en el que se inscriben un relato de guerra con personajes intercambiables en lugares variables que configuran la ilusión sobre el “narco” en nuestra sociedad contemporánea, con atención especial en los productos culturales sobre el tráfico de drogas en general. .
Courage and Cowardice in Ancient Greece: From Homer to Aristotle
by Andrei G. ZavaliyThe book offers the first comprehensive account of the debate on true courage as it was raging in ancient Greece, from the times when the immensely influential Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, were composed, to the period of the equally influential author, Aristotle. The many voices that contribute to this debate include poets, authors of ancient dramas and comedies, historians, politicians and philosophers. The book traces the origin of the earliest ideal of a courageous hero in the epic poems of Homer (8th century BCE), and faithfully records its transformations in later authors, which range from an emphatic denial of the Homeric standards of courage (as in comedies of Aristophanes and some Dialogues of Plato) to the strong revisionist tendencies of Aristotle, who attempts to restore genuine courage to its traditional place as an exclusively martial, male virtue.Without attempting to cover the whole of the Western history, the book is able to explore the most important primary Greek sources on the subject matter in greater details, and provide the reader with a comprehensive picture of the changes in both popular and philosophical conceptualizations of the standards of courage from the Archaic period to the middle of the 4th century BCE. A deeper understanding of the history of the debate on courage should help to shape the modern discussions as well, as it becomes obvious that many of the questions on courage and cowardice that are still raised by the contemporary authors from different fields, have been thoroughly considered during the early stages of Greek culture. The book seeks to undermine a common stereotype of a single, unified view on courage and cowardice in Ancient Greece and shows that the current debates on what constitutes genuine courageous character can be traced to the various direct and indirect discussions on this subject matter by the ancient authorities.
Public Branding and Marketing: A Global Viewpoint
by Staci M. ZavattaroThis edited volume details public branding and marketing from a global, comparative perspective. Place branding and marketing practices are now prominent in cities, states, nations, regions, and organizations all over the world. While disciplines such as hospitality management, tourism marketing, and business marketing have made inroads into understanding the intricacies of place branding, research in public administration and policy is still emerging. This volume fills that research gap. Including accounts from both the academic and practitioner communities, this book bridges the academic-practitioner divide and provides a holistic account of branding and marketing in public organizations as well as immediate application and lessons learned. The book takes an explicit public administration approach, focusing on a wide range of topics such as branding leadership, co-creation, stakeholder engagement, education, non-profit marketing and branding, and city administration. The book is divided into four sections. Section I highlights the process of developing and communicating public branding and marketing efforts. Section II focuses specifically on how social media and other digital technologies are used to communicate and evaluate place branding strategies. Section III centers on branding at the local government level. Section IV highlights how various stakeholder groups come together (or not) when participating in strategic branding efforts. Presenting various methodologies, approaches, and implications of place branding and marketing across differing social, cultural, political, and economic conditions, this book will be of use to scholars and students in public. administration, tourism studies, and business administration as well as professionals and practitioners in the public branding and marketing field.
Housing The New Russia
by Jane R. ZaviscaIn Housing the New Russia, Jane R. Zavisca examines Russia's attempts to transition from a socialist vision of housing, in which the government promised a separate, state-owned apartment for every family, to a market-based and mortgage-dependent model of home ownership. In 1992, the post-Soviet Russian government signed an agreement with the United States to create the Russian housing market. The vision of an American-style market guided housing policy over the next two decades. Privatization gave socialist housing to existing occupants, creating a nation of homeowners overnight. New financial institutions, modeled on the American mortgage system, laid the foundation for a market. Next the state tried to stimulate mortgages-and reverse the declining birth rate, another major concern-by subsidizing loans for young families. Imported housing institutions, however, failed to resonate with local conceptions of ownership, property, and rights. Most Russians reject mortgages, which they call "debt bondage," as an unjust "overpayment" for a good they consider to be a basic right. Instead of stimulating homeownership, privatization, combined with high prices and limited credit, created a system of "property without markets. " Frustrated aspirations and unjustified inequality led most Russians to call for a government-controlled housing market. Under the Soviet system, residents retained lifelong tenancy rights, perceiving the apartments they inhabited as their own. In the wake of privatization, young Russians can no longer count on the state to provide their house, nor can they afford to buy a home with wages, forcing many to live with extended family well into adulthood. Zavisca shows that the contradictions of housing policy are a significant factor in Russia's falling birth rates and the apparent failure of its pronatalist policies. These consequences further stack the deck against the likelihood that an affordable housing market will take off in the near future.
Drones and Unmanned Aerial Systems
by Aleš ZavršnikThis book tackles the regulatory issues of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) or Remotely-Piloted Aerial Systems (RPAS), which have profound consequences for privacy, security and other fundamental liberties. Collectively known as "drones," they were initially deployed for military purposes: reconnaissance, surveillance and extrajudicial executions. Today, we are witnessing a growth of their use into the civilian and humanitarian domain. They are increasingly used for goals as diverse as news gathering, aerial inspection of oil refinery flare stacks, mapping of the Amazonian rain-forest, crop spraying and search and rescue operations. The civil use of drones is becoming a reality in the European Union and in the US. The drone revolution may be a new technological revolution. Proliferation of the next generation of "recreational" drones show how drones will be sold as any other consumer item. The cultural perception of the technology is shifting, as drones are increasingly being used for humanitarian activities, on one hand, but they can also firmly be situated in the prevailing modes of postmodern governance on the other hand. This work will be of interest to researchers in Criminology and Criminal Justice interested in issues related to surveillance, security, privacy, and technology. It will also provide a criminological background for related legal issues, such as privacy law, aviation law, international criminal law, and comparative law.
Artificial Intelligence, Social Harms and Human Rights (Critical Criminological Perspectives)
by Aleš Završnik Katja SimončičThis book critically explores how and to what extent artificial intelligence (AI) can infringe human rights and/or lead to socially harmful consequences and how to avoid these. The European Union has outlined how it will use big data, machine learning, and AI to tackle a number of inherently social problems, including poverty, climate change, social inequality and criminality. The contributors of this book argue that the developments in AI must take place in an appropriate legal and ethical framework and they make recommendations to ensure that harm and human rights violations are avoided. The book is split into two parts: the first addresses human rights violations and harms that may occur in relation to AI in different domains (e.g. border control, surveillance, facial recognition) and the second part offers recommendations to address these issues. It draws on interdisciplinary research and speaks to policy-makers and criminologists, sociologists, scholars in STS studies, security studies scholars and legal scholars.
Cambridge Studies In European Law And Policy: Gendering European Working Time Regimes
by Ania ZbyszewskaThe standard approach to regulating working hours rests on gendered assumptions about how paid and unpaid work ought to be divided. In this book, Ania Zbyszewska takes a feminist, socio-legal approach to evaluate whether the contemporary European working time regimes can support a more equal sharing of this work. Focusing on the legal and political developments surrounding the EU's Working Time Directive and the reforms of Poland's Labour Code, Zbyszewska reveals that both regimes retain this traditional gender bias, and suggests the reasons for its persistence. She employs a wide range of data sources and uses the Polish case to assess the EU influence over national policy discourse and regulation, with the broader transnational policy trends also considered. This book combines legal analysis with social and political science concepts to highlight law's constitutive role and relational dimensions, and to reflect on the relationship between discursive politics and legal action.
Privacy in a Digital, Networked World
by Sherali Zeadally Mohamad BadraThis comprehensive textbook/reference presents a focused review of the state of the art in privacy research, encompassing a range of diverse topics. The first book of its kind designed specifically to cater to courses on privacy, this authoritative volume provides technical, legal, and ethical perspectives on privacy issues from a global selection of renowned experts. Features: examines privacy issues relating to databases, P2P networks, big data technologies, social networks, and digital information networks; describes the challenges of addressing privacy concerns in various areas; reviews topics of privacy in electronic health systems, smart grid technology, vehicular ad-hoc networks, mobile devices, location-based systems, and crowdsourcing platforms; investigates approaches for protecting privacy in cloud applications; discusses the regulation of personal information disclosure and the privacy of individuals; presents the tools and the evidence to better understand consumers' privacy behaviors.
The Allocation of Regulatory Competence in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme
by Josephine Van ZebenThe European Union's Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the world's largest carbon trading market. This book offers a new perspective on the EU ETS as a multi-level governance regime, in which the regulatory process is composed of three distinct 'competences' - norm setting, implementation, and enforcement. Are these competences best combined in a single regulator at one level of government or would they be better allocated among a variety of regulators at different levels of government? The combined legal, economic, and political analysis in this book reveals that the actual allocation of competences within the EU ETS diverges from a hypothetical ideal allocation in important ways, and provides a political economy explanation for the existing allocation of norm setting, implementation and enforcement competences among various levels of European government.
Polycentricity in the European Union
by Josephine Van Zeben Ana BobićSupranational governance is being challenged by politicians and citizens around the EU as over-centralized and undemocratic. This book is premised on the idea that polycentric governance, developed by Vincent and Elinor Ostrom, is a fruitful place to start for addressing this challenge. Assessing the presence of, and potential for, polycentric governance within the EU means approaching established principles and practices from a new perspective. While the debate on these issues is rich, longstanding and interdisciplinary, it has proven difficult to sidestep the 'renationalisation/federalisation' dichotomy. The aim of this volume is not to reject the EU's institutional structure but provide a different benchmark for the assessment of its functioning. Polycentric theory highlights the importance of multilevel horizontal relationships within the EU - between states, but also between many sub-state actors, all the way down to individuals. This helps us answer the question: how do we achieve self-governance in an interdependent world?
International Energy Law: Rules Governing Future Exploration, Exploitation and Use of Renewable Resources
by Rex J. ZedalisThe international legal rules affecting renewable alternative energy resources are amongst the most important legal and environmental concerns of the near future. As traditional energy sources are depleted, new technologies are being developed to harness the potentials of wave, current and tidal energy, coastal wind power, offshore geothermal, polar energy resources and space-based solar collection. This book is the first comprehensive analysis of the legal rules governing the alternative energy resource potential of all international common areas - the high seas, the polar zones (especially Antarctica) and outer space. In a detailed, but precisely analyzed text, the book also reviews the international environmental rules affecting exploration, exploitation and use of internationally situated energy resources, alongside resources located offshore under national jurisdictions. This is accompanied by a critical look at the connection between efforts to control greenhouse gases and the growing interest in non-polluting alternatives found in the international "commons . The result is a work of unprecedented value for environmental and international law academics and practitioners, as well as those interested in environmental resource economics and politics.
The Legal Dimensions of Oil and Gas in Iraq
by Rex J. ZedalisThis volume presents the first and only comprehensive examination of the legal issues surrounding international debt recovery on claims against Iraqi oil and gas. In addition to presenting a snapshot view of Iraq's outstanding debt obligations and an analysis of the significance of the theory of odious debt in the context of the Iraqi situation, the list of legal issues examined includes relevant provisions of the Iraqi Constitution of 2005, controlling Security Council resolutions, pertinent articles of the KRG oil and gas law (No. 22) of 2007 and the many nuanced and technical questions raised thereby, legal pronouncements aimed at protecting Iraqi oil and gas and those adopted in selected other nations, and general problems associated with recognition and enforcement of awards or judgments that may involve such oil and gas or revenues from the sale thereof. Also discussed are the lessons learned by the handling of the Iraq debt experience and the transferability of those lessons to future situations in which resource-rich nations may have outstanding financial obligations to other members of the world community or their nationals.
Oil and Gas in the Disputed Kurdish Territories: Jurisprudence, Regional Minorities and Natural Resources in a Federal System
by Rex J. ZedalisThis book examines the historical and contextual background to the oil and gas resources in the Kurdish territories, placing particular emphasis on the reserves situated in the disputed provinces. The volume is singularly unique in focusing on an examination of the rules reflected in both the national and the regional constitutional, legislative, and contractual measures and documents relevant to the question of whether the central government in Baghdad or the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) in Erbil has a stronger claim to legal control over the oil and gas resources in the disputed Kurdish territories. As a subsidiary focus, the author also draws attention to how the basic thrust of the volume connects to broader jurisprudential issues regarding the nature and purpose of law, the matter of claims by native peoples to natural resources on traditional lands, and the place of regional minorities operating in a federal system. Since the law examined is domestic or municipal in origin, additional reference is made to the role that such law can play in the "bottom up" (as opposed to more conventional "top down") development of international law. The book’s opening chapters provide a valuable contextual introduction, followed by a number of substantive chapters providing an analytical and critical assessment of the controlling legal rules. Written in a scholarly, yet accessible style, and covering matters of basic importance to academics, lawyers, political scientists, government representatives, and students of energy and natural resources, as well as those of developing legal structures, Oil and Gas in the Disputed Kurdish Territories is an essential addition to any collection.
International Criminal Tribunals and Human Rights Law
by Krit ZeegersThis book addresses the interpretation and application of human rights norms by International Criminal Tribunals (ICTs). Such Tribunals are widely heralded as human rights defenders. At the same time, however, they employ activities that necessary entail the risk of human rights violations: they conduct criminal investigations, arrest and detain individuals, and put them on trial. This book investigates this flip-side of the ICTs' relationship with international human rights law, and focuses on the ICTs' own interpretation and application of human rights norms. First, the book addresses whether and how ICTs are bound by human rights law, since unlike states, they do not sign or ratify human rights conventions. Second, the book provides an in-depth analysis of the way in which ICTs interpret and apply human rights norms, compared to the way in which these norms are interpreted in a traditional state-context. Relying on the unique circumstances in which they operate, ICTs have often deviated from generally accepted interpretations of human rights. The author critically examines this so-called contextual approach and seeks to recommend ways in which ICTs can improve their interpretative practice by giving due regard to the context in which they operate, while still providing adequate human rights protection. Addressing the ICTs' possible leeway in terms of contextualization, this book contributes to the broader debates about adherence to human rights norms in international law. Krit Zeegers is an Associate at Allen & Overy LLP, Amsterdam, and previously worked as a researcher / junior lecturer at the University of Amsterdam.
Home and International Law: Dispossession, Displacement and Resistance in Everyday Life
by Henrietta ZeffertThis book is about home and international law. More specifically, it is about the profound, and frequently devastating, transformations of home that are happening almost everywhere in the world today and what international law has to do with them. Through three stories of home – the desert home, the lake home and the city home – this book traces how the everyday operations of international law shape the material, affective and imaginative experience of home. It argues that international law’s ‘homemaking work’ is characterised by acts of domination, practices of resistance and the production of unhomely spaces. However, the book also considers whether and how the liberatory potential of international law could be unlocked through the metaphor of home. This book draws from fieldwork conducted by the author in Palestine, Cambodia and the United Kingdom. It takes a global socio-legal approach to home and international law, informed by feminist political theory, feminist geography, home studies and contemporary critical approaches to international law. It is the first academic work to examine the relationship between home and international law. This book’s global socio-legal approach to home and international law will be of interest to those teaching and studying in international law, socio-legal studies, legal pluralism and legal geography.
Changing Lenses: Restorative Justice for Our Times
by Howard ZehrDoes the criminal justice system actually help victims and offenders? What does justice look like for those who have been harmed? For those who have done harm? Twenty-five years after it was first published, Changing Lenses by Howard Zehr remains the classic text of the restorative justice field. <P><P> Now with valuable author updates on the changing landscape of restorative justice and a new section of resources for practitioners and teachers, Changing Lenses offers a framework for understanding crime, injury, accountability, and healing from a restorative perspective. Uncovering widespread assumptions about crime, the courts, retributive justice, and the legal process, Changing Lenses offers provocative new paradigms and proven alternatives for public policy and judicial reform.
Doing Life: Reflections Of Men And Women Serving Life Sentences
by Howard Zehr<P> What does it mean to face a life prison sentence? What have "lifers" learned about life-from having taken a life? Photographer Howard Zehr has interviewed and made portraits of men and women in Pennsylvania prisons who are serving life sentences without possibility of parole. Readers see the prisoners as people, de-mystified. <P><P> Brief text accompanies each portrait, the voice of each prisoner speaking openly about the crime each has committed, the utter violation of another person each has caused. They speak of loneliness, missing their children growing up, dealing with the vacuum, caught between death and life. A timely book.
The Little Book of Restorative Justice: Revised and Updated (Justice and Peacebuilding)
by Howard ZehrHoward Zehr is the father of Restorative Justice and is known worldwide for his pioneering work in transforming understandings of justice. Here he proposes workable principles and practices for making Restorative Justice possible in this revised and updated edition of his bestselling, seminal book on the movement. (The original edition has sold more than 110,000 copies.)Restorative Justice, with its emphasis on identifying the justice needs of everyone involved in a crime, is a worldwide movement of growing influence that is helping victims and communities heal, while holding criminals accountable for their actions.This is not soft-on-crime, feel-good philosophy, but rather a concrete effort to bring justice and healing to everyone involved in a crime. In The Little Book of Restorative Justice, Zehr first explores how restorative justice is different from criminal justice. Then, before letting those appealing observations drift out of reach into theoretical space, Zehr presents Restorative Justice practices. Zehr undertakes a massive and complex subject and puts it in graspable from, without reducing or trivializing it.This resource is also suitable for academic classes and workshops, for conferences and trainings, as well as for the layperson interested in understanding this innovative and influential movement.
Transcending: Reflections Of Crime Victims
by Howard ZehrAre victims of crime destined to have the rest of their lives shaped by the crimes they've experienced? ("What happened to the road map for living the rest of my life?" asks a woman whose mother was murdered.) Will victims of crime always be bystanders in the justice system? ("We're having a problem forgiving the judge and the system," says the father of a young man killed in prison.) Is it possible for anyone to transcend such a comprehensively destructive, identity altering occurrence? ("I thought, I'm going to run until I'm not angry anymore," expresses a woman who was assaulted.) Howard Zehr presents the portraits and the courageous stories of 39 victims of violent crime in Transcending: Reflections of Crime Victims. Many of these people were twice-wounded: once at the hands of an assailant; the second time by the courts, where there is no legal provision for a victim's participation. "My hope," says Zehr, "is that this book might hand down a rope to others who have experienced such tragedies and traumas, and that it might allow all who read it to live on the healing edge."
The Big Book of Restorative Justice: Four Classic Justice & Peacebuilding Books in One Volume (Justice and Peacebuilding)
by Howard Zehr Allan Macrae Kay Pranis Lorraine AmstutzFor the first time, the four most popular restorative justice books in the Justice & Peacebuilding series—The Little Book of Restorative Justice: Revised and Updated, The Little Book of Victim Offender Conferencing, The Little Book of Family Group Conferences, and The Little Book of Circle Processes—are available in one affordable volume. Restorative justice, with its emphasis on identifying the justice needs of everyone involved in a crime, is a worldwide movement of growing influence that is helping victims and communities heal while holding criminals accountable for their actions. This is not a soft-on-crime, feel-good philosophy, but rather a concrete effort to bring justice and healing to everyone involved in a crime. Circle processes draw from the Native American tradition of gathering in a circle to solve problems as a community. Peacemaking circles are used in neighborhoods, in schools, in the workplace, and in social services to support victims of all kinds, resolve behavior problems, and create positive climates. Each book is written by a scholar at the forefront of these movements, making this important reading for classrooms, community leaders, and anyone involved with conflict resolution.
The Big Book of Restorative Justice: Four Classic Justice & Peacebuilding Books in One Volume (Justice and Peacebuilding)
by Howard Zehr Allan MacRae Kay Pranis Lorraine Stutzman AmstutzThe four most popular restorative justice books in the Justice & Peacebuilding series—The Little Book of Restorative Justice: Revised and Updated, The Little Book of Victim Offender Conferencing, The Little Book of Family Group Conferences, and The Little Book of Circle Processes—in one affordable volume. And now with a new foreword from Howard Zehr, one of the founders of restorative justice!Restorative justice, with its emphasis on identifying the justice needs of everyone involved in a crime, is a worldwide movement of growing influence that is helping victims and communities heal while holding criminals accountable for their actions. This is not a soft-on-crime, feel-good philosophy, but rather a concrete effort to bring justice and healing to everyone involved in a crime. Circle processes draw from the Native American tradition of gathering in a circle to solve problems as a community. Peacemaking circles are used in neighborhoods, in schools, in the workplace, and in social services to support victims of all kinds, resolve behavior problems, and create positive climates.Each book is written by a scholar at the forefront of these movements, making this important reading for classrooms, community leaders, and anyone involved with conflict resolution.