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A History of Chinese Literature
by Zhang LongxiZhang Longxi, an internationally renowned scholar of Chinese and comparative literature, is your guide to the three-millennia-long history of Chinese literature from the remote antiquity of oracle bones to contemporary works. Professor Zhang charts the development of the major literary forms in Chinese, including poetry, prose, song lyrics, and plays, and introduces the most famous poets and writers and their representative texts. Taking a period-based approach through the major dynasties, he places these forms, texts, and authors within their historical contexts and tells the fascinating story of Chinese literature with copious examples in English translation. He writes in a clear and accessible style and assumes no prior knowledge of Chinese history or Chinese literature. This book is an ideal introduction for students and the general readers who want to get a broad but thorough overview of Chinese literature in all its richness and diversity.
A History of Chinese Literature
by Zhang LongxiZhang Longxi, an internationally renowned scholar of Chinese and comparative literature, is your guide to the three-millennia-long history of Chinese literature from the remote antiquity of oracle bones to contemporary works. Professor Zhang charts the development of the major literary forms in Chinese, including poetry, prose, song lyrics, and plays, and introduces the most famous poets and writers and their representative texts. Taking a period-based approach through the major dynasties, he places these forms, texts, and authors within their historical contexts and tells the fascinating story of Chinese literature with copious examples in English translation. He writes in a clear and accessible style and assumes no prior knowledge of Chinese history or Chinese literature. This book is an ideal introduction for students and the general readers who want to get a broad but thorough overview of Chinese literature in all its richness and diversity.
The Routledge Companion to Global Comparative Literature (Routledge Literature Companions)
by Omid Azadibougar Zhang LongxiThe Routledge Companion to Global Comparative Literature is a collection of papers by influential scholars who are engaged in comparative literary studies and addresses a central and highly important question about the discipline: if Eurocentrism has been integral to comparative literature, and if the world we live in is undergoing radical changes, then how can, or should, the discipline change to overcome this problem, of the discipline as well as of literary history, to accommodate non-Western traditions? Addressing this significant matter and taking different approaches in response to the state of the discipline, the papers in this volume offer diverse ways of overcoming Eurocentrism: the role of institutions and the changes they need to undergo; possible ways of practicing a truly global comparative literature; the history of the discipline outside Europe; premodern histories of ideas and the non-European origins of modernity; translation, orientalism and area studies; publishing and literary circulation; and modern technologies and their impact on literary dissemination and the discipline. This collection assesses comparative literature at a timely historical moment and will broaden the field by addressing the students and scholars of comparative literary studies all over the world with significant hints for more inclusive histories of world literature.
World Literature as Discovery: Expanding the World Literary Canon
by Zhang LongxiThe rise of world literature is the most noticeable phenomenon in literary studies in the twenty-first century. However, truly well-known and globally circulating works are all canonical works of European or Western literature, while non-European and even "minor" European literatures remain largely unknown beyond their culture of origin. World Literature as Discovery: Expanding the World Literary Canon argues that world literature for our time must go beyond Eurocentrism and expand the canon to include great works from non-European and "minor" European literatures. As much of the world’s literature remains untranslated and unknown, the expansion will be an exciting process of discovery. By discussing fundamental questions around canon, circulation, aesthetic values, translation, cosmopolitanism, and the literary universal, Zhang Longxi proposes a new and liberating concept of world literature that will shape world literature worthy of its name. This book speaks for a more inclusive idea of world literature and shows students and scholars alike that all the literary traditions, particularly non-European traditions, will be able to make important contributions and expand the canon of world literature.
Literature and Literary Criticism in Contemporary China (China Perspectives)
by Zhang JiongEach age has its value system of literary criticism whose construction is inseparable from the mainstream ideology of the society. In contemporary China, the mainstream ideology is inevitably Marxism. This book is composed of two parts. The first part studies literary criticism in contemporary China whose development is closely related to the popularization of Marxism and the unavoidable collisions between Marxism and other theories. It also introduces some relevant critical debates, such as the debate on the criticism of Yu Pingbo, a representative and one of the authoritative scholars studying The Dream of the Red Chamber. In the second part, the author expounds the history of Chinese literature from a macro-level perspective, involving works, genres, ideologies, schools, etc. He also discusses the challenges facing Chinese literature under the background of economic globalization. Will politics, cultures, including literature and arts, be globalized? In addition, the author puts forward that a dynamic concept is needed for a better understanding of Chinese culture and gives his suggestions about the "adjustments" Chinese people should make for the present. This book will attract scholars and students of literary criticism studies and Chinese literary studies. People who are interested in Chinese literature and thought will also benefit from this book.
Literature and Literary Theory in Contemporary China (China Perspectives)
by Zhang JiongMarxism initiated a new era not only for people to fight for socialist future, but also for each discipline of sciences to witness profound changes. In such a context, literature, which has always been closely related to politics, will inevitably move toward a new direction. This book is composed of two parts. Part One studies the development of literary theories in contemporary China from a Marxist perspective. It introduces the basic ideas of Marxist literary theories as well as their spread and development in China, such as the combination of the theories and Chinese revolutionary literature. Moreover, it discusses the challenges facing Marxist literary theories in the 21st century under the background of diversification of literature and art, in terms of theory and practice, and high technologies which brought about electronic writing and digital communication of literary works. The second part elucidates the author’s insights into major issues concerning literary theories (e.g. the relationship between literature and people, literature and reality, perception and rationality in literary creation, etc.) This book will appeal to scholars and students of literary aesthetics and Chinese literary and cultural studies. People who are interested in history of contemporary Chinese literature will also benefit from this book.
Autobiography and Teacher Development in China
by William F. Pinar Zhang HuaAutobiography and Teacher Development in China investigates the roles of autobiography in teacher education, as several scholars in China recontextualize Western conceptions of teacher development, combining them with uniquely Chinese cultural conceptions to articulate a reconceptualization of teacher development that holds worldwide significance. Framed by the work of Zhang Hua and William F. Pinar, these theoretical and practical essays point to an internationally inflected reconceptualization of teachers' professional development, pre-service and in-service. This volume addresses multiple movements of teacher education reform worldwide, focused on crafting a nationally distinctive course not only internationally, but also culturally, historically, and locally.
New Research on Cohesion and Coherence in Linguistics (China Perspectives)
by Zhang Delu Liu RushanThe study of text cohesion and coherence has been a topic of heated discussion in Linguistics since the 1990s. Western linguists have developed two major theoretical frameworks to describe the relationship between the two concepts: one posits that cohesive devices are important means to ensure cohesion; the other argues that coherence does not rely on cohesion. Yet neither has complete explanatory power over reality; nor can they solve real-life problems. This title proposes a creative, concrete, and highly operational theoretical model that unites cohesion and coherence using authentic English or Chinese examples. The authors clarify the concepts of coherence and expand the scope of the research by focusing on a variety of internal and external factors, such as psycho-cognitive and socio-cultural factors. Moreover, the authors propose that the new theoretical paradigm can be applied to a range of other disciplines, including translation and foreign language teaching. This title has been one of the most cited works on cohesion and coherence in China. Students and scholars of discourse analysis, linguistics, and language education will find this an invaluable reference.
Language Teachers at Work: Linking Materials with Classroom Teaching
by Zhan LiThis book examines a ubiquitous, yet under-researched, area of language education, i.e., language teachers' use of curriculum materials. It particularly focuses on EFL teachers' use of prescribed curriculum materials in higher education in Mainland China and presents a qualitative, multi-case study involving four Chinese EFL teachersand eight students (two students from each teacher’s class) at one university in Mainland China. Drawing on data from pre-lesson and post-lesson interviews with the teachers, lesson observations, and documents in three consecutive semesters at the target university, the book delineates the processes of materials useinclassroom settings. It also identifies four domains of factors that influenced the enactment of curriculum materials. Most importantly, by adopting Vygotsky’s (1978) mediation theory and Remillard’s (2005) participatory perspective, the book constructs a "curriculum enactment mediation model" to reveal the complex and mediated relations among teachers, learners, curriculum materials, and context. It also recommends practical implications for materials developers, teacher educators, administrators, and policymakers.
Routledge Handbook on Turkish Literature
by Didem Havlioğlu Zeynep UysalThis handbook provides a comprehensive overview of Turkish literature within both a local and global context. Across eight thematic sections a collection of subject experts use close readings of literature materials to provide a critical survey of the main issues and topics within the literature. The chapters provide analysis on a wide range of genres and text types, including novels, poetry, religious texts and drama, with works studied ranging from the fourteenth century right up to the present day. Utilising such a historic scope allows the volume to be read across cultures and time, while simultaneously contextualising and investigating how modern Turkish literature interacts with world literature, and finds its place within it. Collectively, the authors challenge the national literary historiography by replacing the Ottoman Turkish literature in the Anatolian civilizations with its plurality of cultures. They also seek to overcome the institutional and theoretical shortcomings within current study of such works, suggesting new approaches and methods for the study of Turkish literature. The Routledge Handbook on Turkish Literature marks a new departure in the reading and studying of Turkish literature. It will be a vital resource for those studying Literature, Middle East Studies, Turkish and Ottoman history, social sciences, and political science.
The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave Studies in International Relations)
by Zeynep Gulsah Capan Filipe Dos Reis Maj GrastenThis volume concerns the role and nature of translation in global politics. Through the establishment of trade routes, the encounter with the ‘New World’, and the circulation of concepts and norms across global space, meaning making and social connections have unfolded through practices of translating. While translation is core to international relations it has been relatively neglected in the discipline of International Relations. The Politics of Translation in International Relations remedies this neglect to suggest an understanding of translation that transcends language to encompass a broad range of recurrent social and political practices. The volume provides a wide variety of case studies, including financial regulation, gender training programs, and grassroot movements. Contributors situate the politics of translation in the theoretical and methodological landscape of International Relations, encompassing feminist theory, de- and post-colonial theory, hermeneutics, post-structuralism, critical constructivism, semiotics, conceptual history, actor-network theory and translation studies. The Politics of Translation in International Relations furthers and intensifies a cross-disciplinary dialogue on how translation makes international relations.
Remembering Who We Are
by Zev ChafetsThe perfect gift for graduates - thirty commencement addresses about liberty, patriotism, tradition, and other conservative themes that are rarely heard on campus.The college graduation speech has become another casualty of our age of political correctness. Historically, universities are supposed to be strongholds of tolerance, where any idea can be discussed--and tested rigorously to see if it has merit. Students should benefit from free expression and diversity of opinions, about current events and eternal questions alike.But today, certain positions are considered too controversial for the fragile ears of liberal students, and for administrators who usually surrender to their demands. It's no longer unusual when a U.S. Senator like Ted Cruz, a pioneering neurosurgeon like Ben Carson, a Supreme Court Justice like Antonin Scalia, or a human rights advocate like Ayaan Hirsi Ali faces protests, disrespectful shouting, or petitions to have his or her invitation revoked.Fortunately, Remembering Who We Are collects the commencement wisdom of a wide range of thinkers who are willing to challenge the liberal consensus on campus. Editor Zev Chafets has brought together a diverse group of speakers from many walks of life, from playwright David Mamet to Ambassador Ryan Crocker, from Governor Bobby Jindal to humorist PJ O'Rourke. For example, you'll find in these pages: * "Do Your Best to Be Your Best" by Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas * "Gridlock, An American Achievement" by columnist George F. Will * "We Have Something Wonderful" by novelist Marilynne Robinson * "The Art of the Entrepreneur" by business leader Mort Zuckerman * "Restore and Remake Our Country" by historian Victor Davis HansonToo many students now enter the real world after being taught that patriotism is misguided, that religious faith is for the foolish, and that free enterprise is unfair. The eloquent speeches in this collection will help them grasp the truth - that America is flawed but fundamentally good; that faith can have intellectual depth; that capitalism is the world's greatest force for fighting poverty; and much more.From the Hardcover edition.
Biographical Perspectives on Lives Lived During Covid-19: Global Narratives and International Methodological Innovations (Frontiers in Sociology and Social Research #11)
by Lisa Moran Zeta DoolyThis volume elucidates international biographical and narrative perspectives on how COVID-19 influenced people’s daily lives across different countries and contexts. It draws together global interdisciplinary scholarly contributions and conceptualizes the lived life as a complex, multilayered and multidimensional phenomenon that is constantly unfolding both in and across time. Significantly, this volume focuses on seldom-heard groups including persons diagnosed with HIV, COVID-19 dissenters, prisoners, essential workers, waste pickers, refugees and migrants. The chapters focus on the pandemic's multifarious impacts on people’s lived realities in personal and professional domains, exploring the complexity of people’s relationships with family, friends, interactions with colleagues and students and the centrality of emotions, to everyday human experiences, including grief, loss and loneliness as well as moments of joy and processes of personal renewal. This volume explores innovative questions, issues and challenges on the development and utilization of rich, biographical narrative methodologies during COVID-19, addressing important issues like power and voice, and pragmatic questions of how to do biographic research whilst socially distant. Contributions to this work illuminate the multidimensionality of human experiences, adaptability to adverse circumstances and the complexity of working through unanticipated global events whilst reimagining novel social futures.
Double Hierarchy Linguistic Term Set and Its Extensions: Theory and Applications (Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing #396)
by Zeshui Xu Xunjie GouThis book presents the concept of the double hierarchy linguistic term set and its extensions, which can deal with dynamic and complex decision-making problems. With the rapid development of science and technology and the acceleration of information updating, the complexity of decision-making problems has become increasingly obvious. This book provides a comprehensive and systematic introduction to the latest research in the field, including measurement methods, consistency methods, group consensus and large-scale group consensus decision-making methods, as well as their practical applications. Intended for engineers, technicians, and researchers in the fields of computer linguistics, operations research, information science, management science and engineering, it also serves as a textbook for postgraduate and senior undergraduate university students.
Probabilistic Linguistic Two-Sided Matching Decision-Making Methods and Applications (Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing #436)
by Zeshui Xu Bo LiThis book tackles the intricacies of decision-making processes where alternatives stem from distinct, finite sets. Discover the cutting-edge in decision-making with our groundbreaking book on complex two-sided matching methods. Harnessing the power of probabilistic linguistic term sets, it introduces innovative methods that enhance matching efficiency and practicality. It addresses the pressing question of how to navigate and optimize in scenarios with multifaceted matching challenges, offering an exploration into the psychological perceptions of agents through consistency checks and pairwise comparisons. It delves into the unknowns of static matching with multiple attribute weights, extends its scope to multi-sided agent sets in complex matching, and introduces dynamic screening mechanisms to refine the matching process. This book is not just a theoretical exploration. It lays the groundwork for intelligent matching algorithms and group mechanisms, providing actionable insights for technical supply and demand allocation, emergency personnel dispatch, and multi-stage medical management scheme selection. The effectiveness of these methods is backed by comparative analyses and simulation experiments, proving their superiority in real-world applications. Embrace the future of decision-making with our book, a must-read for those seeking to master complex matching scenarios and unlock practical solutions.
Theory and Approaches of Group Decision Making with Uncertain Linguistic Expressions (Uncertainty and Operations Research)
by Zeshui Xu Hai WangThis book mainly introduces a series of theory and approaches of group decision-making based on several types of uncertain linguistic expressions and addresses their applications. The book pursues three major objectives: (1) to introduce some techniques to model several types of natural linguistic expressions; (2) to handle these expressions in group decision-making; and (3) to clarify the involved approaches by practical applications. The book is especially valuable for readers to understand how linguistic expressions could be employed and operated to make decisions, and motivates researchers to consider more types of natural linguistic expressions in decision analysis under uncertainties.
Corporate Social Responsibility, Public Relations and Community Engagement: Emerging Perspectives from South East Asia (Routledge New Directions in PR & Communication Research)
by Zeny Sarabia-Panol Marianne D. SisonDiverse in economic development, political and mass media systems, the countries in Southeast Asia cast a unique light on the parallels between development-cum-participative communication and corporate social responsibility. In our globalized environments, knowledge of power, culture and the colonial histories that influence and shape business and governance practices are increasingly important. Focusing on six countries—Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam—the book discusses how public relations (PR) and corporate social responsibility (CSR) discourse are constructed, interpreted, communicated and enacted in this diverse emerging region. By connecting the disparate disciplines of participatory and development communication with PR and CSR discourse, this innovative text explores the tensions between concepts of modernity and traditional values and their role in engendering creativity, compliance or resistance. This book will be of interest to researchers, educators and advanced students in the fields of public relations, communication, corporate social responsibility, corporate communications and Southeast Asia studies.
Minds without Meanings: An Essay on the Content of Concepts (The\mit Press Ser.)
by Jerry A. Fodor Zenon W. PylyshynTwo prominent thinkers argue for the possibility of a theory of concepts that takes reference to be concepts' sole semantic property.In cognitive science, conceptual content is frequently understood as the “meaning” of a mental representation. This position raises largely empirical questions about what concepts are, what form they take in mental processes, and how they connect to the world they are about. In Minds without Meaning, Jerry Fodor and Zenon Pylyshyn review some of the proposals put forward to answer these questions and find that none of them is remotely defensible.Fodor and Pylyshyn determine that all of these proposals share a commitment to a two-factor theory of conceptual content, which holds that the content of a concept consists of its sense together with its reference. Fodor and Pylyshyn argue instead that there is no conclusive case against the possibility of a theory of concepts that takes reference as their sole semantic property. Such a theory, if correct, would provide for the naturalistic account of content that cognitive science lacks—and badly needs. Fodor and Pylyshyn offer a sketch of how this theory might be developed into an account of perceptual reference that is broadly compatible with empirical findings and with the view that the mental processes effecting perceptual reference are largely preconceptual, modular, and encapsulated.
Grammar and Composition
by Gary Forlini Mary Beth Bauer Lawrence Biener Linda Capo Karen Moore Kenyon Darla H. Shaw Zenobia VernerTextbook focusing on grammar, usage, mechanics, composition, vocabulary, spelling, study and research skills, speaking and listening.
Renaissance Shakespeare/Shakespeare Renaissances: Proceedings of the Ninth World Shakespeare Congress
by Stanley Wells Sukanta Chaudhuri Randall Martin Brian Walsh Ros King James J. Marino Graham Holderness Barry Freeman Shaul Bassi Ann Jennalie Cook Emma Depledge Jean-Christophe Mayer Patrick Lonergan Courtney Lehmann Sharon O'Dair Poonam Trivedi Supriya Chaudhuri Darryl Chalk M. A. Katritzky Jill L. Levenson Margaret Shewring Hersh Zeifman Robert Darcy Joel Rodgers Atsuhiko Hirota Kimberly R. West Richard Fotheringham Eleanor Collins Martin Hilský Vlasta Gallerová Karel Kríž Robert Sturua Galz Engler Madalina Nicolaescu Kaori Kobayashi Zeno Ackermann Tina Krontiris Emily Oliver Carla Della Gatta Cristiane Busato Smith Anna Cetera Bi-Qi Beatrice LeiSelected contributions to the Ninth World Shakespeare Congress, which took place in July 2011 in Prague, represent the contemporary state of Shakespeare studies in thirty-eight countries worldwide. Apart from readings of Shakespeare’s plays and poems, more than forty chapters map Renaissance contexts of his art in politics, theater, law, or material culture and discuss numerous cases of the impact of his works in global culture from the Americas to the Far East, including stage productions, book culture, translations, film and television adaptations, festivals, and national heritage. The last section of the book focuses on the afterlife of Shakespeare in the work of the leading British dramatist Tom Stoppard. Published by University of Delaware Press. Distributed worldwide by Rutgers University Press.
Listening, Community Engagement, and Peacebuilding: International Perspectives
by Debra L. Worthington Zenebe BeyeneThis book explores the role of listening in community engagement and peacebuilding efforts, bridging academic research in communication and practical applications for individual and social change.For all their differences, community engagement and peacebuilding efforts share much in common: the need to establish and agree on achievable and measurable goals, the importance of trust, and the need for conflict management, to name but a few. This book presents listening – considered as a multi-disciplinary concept related to but distinct from civility, civic participation, and other social processes – as a primary mechanism for accomplishing these tasks. Individual chapters explore these themes in an array of international contexts, examining topics such as conflict resolution, restorative justice, environmental justice, migrants and refugees, and trauma-informed peacebuilding. The book includes contemporary literature reviews and theoretical insights covering the role of listening as related to individual, social, and governmental efforts to better engage communities and build, maintain, or establish peace in an increasingly divided world.This collection provides invaluable insight to researchers, students, educators, and practitioners in intercultural and international communication, conflict management, peacebuilding, community engagement, and international studies.Chapter 10 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF at http://www.taylorfrancis.com under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-ND) 4.0 license.
Narrative Machine: The Naturalist, Modernist, and Postmodernist Novel (Narrative Theory and Culture)
by Zena MeadowsongNarrative Machine: The Naturalist, Modernist, and Postmodernist Novel advances a new history of the novel, identifying a crucial link between narrative innovation and the historical process of mechanization. In the late nineteenth century, the novel grapples with a new and increasingly acute problem: In its attempt to represent the colossal power of modern machinery—the steam-driven machines of the Industrial Revolution, the electrical machines of the modern city, and the atomic and digital machines developed after the Second World War—it encounters the limitations of traditional representative strategies. Beginning in the naturalist novel, the machine is typically portrayed as a mythic monster, and though that monster represents a potentially horrific reality—the superhuman power of mechanization—it also disrupts the documentary objectives of narrative realism (the dominant mode of nineteenth-century fiction). The mechanical monster, realistic and yet at odds with traditional realist strategies, tears the form of the novel apart. In doing so, it unleashes a series of innovations that disclose, critique, and contest the force of mechanization: the innovations associated with literary naturalism, modernism, and postmodernism.
Comics and Archaeology (Palgrave Studies in Comics and Graphic Novels)
by Zena Kamash Katy Soar Leen Van BroeckThis book adds to the scant academic literature investigating how comics transmit knowledge of the past and how this refraction of the past shapes our understanding of society and politics in sometimes damaging ways. The volume comes at these questions from a specifically archaeological perspective, foregrounding the representation and narrative use of material cultures. It fulfils its objectives through three reception studies in the first part of the volume and three chapters by comic creators in the second part. All six chapters aim to grapple with a set of central questions about the power inherent in drawn images of various kinds.
Syntactic Theory and First Language Acquisition: Cross-linguistic Perspectives -- Volume 1: Heads, Projections, and Learnability -- Volume 2: Binding, Dependencies, and Learnability
by John Whitman Claire Foley Suzanne Flynn Barbara Lust Margarita Suñer Shyam Kapur Isabella Barbier Katharina Boser Zelmira Nuñez del Prado Edward J. Rubin Lynn Santelmann Almeida Jacqueline ToribioUniversal Grammar (UG) is a theory of both the fundamental principles for all possible languages and the language faculty in the "initial state" of the human organism. These two volumes approach the study of UG by joint, tightly linked studies of both linguistic theory and human competence for language acquisition. In particular, the volumes collect comparable studies across a number of different languages, carefully analyzed by a wide range of international scholars. The issues surrounding cross-linguistic variation in "Heads, Projections, and Learnability" (Volume 1) and in "Binding, Dependencies, and Learnability" (Volume 2) are arguably the most fundamental in UG. How can principles of grammar be learned by general learning theory? What is biologically programmed in the human species in order to guarantee their learnability? What is the true linguistic representation for these areas of language knowledge? What universals exist across languages? The two volumes summarize the most critical current proposals in each area, and offer both theoretical and empirical evidence bearing on them. Research on first language acquisition and formal learnability theory is placed at the center of debates relative to linguistic theory in each area. The convergence of research across several different disciplines -- linguistics, developmental psychology, and computer science -- represented in these volumes provides a paradigm example of cognitive science.
Syntactic Theory and First Language Acquisition: Cross-linguistic Perspectives -- Volume 1: Heads, Projections, and Learnability -- Volume 2: Binding, Dependencies, and Learnability
by Claire Foley Suzanne Flynn Jaklin Kornfilt Barbara Lust Shyam Kapur Isabella Barbier Katharina Boser Zelmira Nuñez del Prado Edward J. Rubin Lynn Santelmann Gabriella Hermon Jacqueline ToribioUniversal Grammar (UG) is a theory of both the fundamental principles for all possible languages and the language faculty in the "initial state" of the human organism. These two volumes approach the study of UG by joint, tightly linked studies of both linguistic theory and human competence for language acquisition. In particular, the volumes collect comparable studies across a number of different languages, carefully analyzed by a wide range of international scholars. The issues surrounding cross-linguistic variation in "Heads, Projections, and Learnability" (Volume 1) and in "Binding, Dependencies, and Learnability" (Volume 2) are arguably the most fundamental in UG. How can principles of grammar be learned by general learning theory? What is biologically programmed in the human species in order to guarantee their learnability? What is the true linguistic representation for these areas of language knowledge? What universals exist across languages? The two volumes summarize the most critical current proposals in each area, and offer both theoretical and empirical evidence bearing on them. Research on first language acquisition and formal learnability theory is placed at the center of debates relative to linguistic theory in each area. The convergence of research across several different disciplines -- linguistics, developmental psychology, and computer science -- represented in these volumes provides a paradigm example of cognitive science.