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The Geology of the Belingwe Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe: A study of Archaean continental crust
by M.J. Bickle A. Martin E.G. Nisbet J.L. OrpenA study on the Bellingwe Greenstone Belt, presenting the stratigraphy of the belt, its structure and tectonic setting, the sedimentology of what may be a rift basin, the geochemistry of the freshest Archaean komatiites yet found, and models of the evolution of the region.
Geology of the Cayman Islands: Evolution of Complex Carbonate Successions on Isolated Oceanic Islands
by Brian JonesGrand Cayman, Little Cayman, and Cayman Brac are, in reality, the summits of independent fault blocks that rise from the depths of the Caribbean Sea. This book traces the geological evolution of these islands over the last 30 to 35 million years. The balance between deposition of carbonate sediments and karst development of the exposed land was dictated by the interaction between ever-changing sea levels and vertical tectonic movement of the fault blocks. Today, drinking water needed for the ever-increasing populations of the islands is supplied largely by desalinization plants that are located in accord with a detailed knowledge of the bedrock.This book is based on an extensive data base that has been assembled over the last 40 years of field work and laboratory analyses. Noteworthy aspects of this database include:Approximately 60 visits to the islands over last 40 years – sampling and documentation of virtually every accessible outcrop on the islands (including some that no longer exist). Most samples have been fully documented petrographically and geochemically.Data from 120 wells that have been drilled to depths up to 245 m (most less than 125 m). Wells have been cored and/or chip sampled. Full documentation of drilling histories, XRD analyses of samples, extensive geochemical analyses for major and minor elements, stable isotopes, 87Sr/86Sr ratios, and Rare Earth Elements from numerous samples.Mapping and sampling of modern sediments, including sediment cores, from most of the lagoons around Grand Cayman.Extensive thin section petrography, scanning electron microscope, and electron microprobe analyses of the dolostones and limestones that form the bedrock of the islands.Samples and data collected from numerous caves on Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac have been used to track their developmental history.Detailed analyses of phosphates collected from Little Cayman.Detailed analyses of terra rossa collected from each of the islands.
Geology of the Eastern Coast
by Cynthia Light BrownTaking a unique approach to a fascinating region of the United States, this activity guide looks at the underlying processes that have shaped the Eastern Coast. Beginning with the connection between geology and geography, the chapters move into a discussion of plate tectonics and landforms such as the Appalachian Mountains, Piedmont area, and Coastal Plains. The aspects of climate, rivers and lakes, and the ecosystems of the temperate forest and wetlands--including bayous and the Everglades--are covered in detail. Engaging sidebars explain why the New River is one of the oldest in the world, how once-endangered alligators are now thriving, how hurricanes form, and more. Combining fun facts with hands-on experiments, this handbook features projects such as building folded mountains, creating dissolving "corals," and making an eye of a storm.
The Geology of the Egyptian Nubian Shield (Regional Geology Reviews)
by Zakaria Hamimi Shoji Arai Abdel-Rahman Fowler Mohammed Z. El-BialyThis richly illustrated book provides an overview of the Neoproterozoic Pan-African Belt of Egypt (PABE), which represents the northwestern continuation of the Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) and the East African Orogen (EAO). The first chapter offers an introduction to the Turin Papyrus Map and the historical background of the PABE, while the second addresses how the PABE is related to the ANS and EAO. Rock succession of the PABE is dealt with in Chapter 3, while Chapter 4 focuses on Sinai Metamorphic Core Complexes and implications on the break-up of Rodinia. Subsequent chapters discuss a broad range of topics, e.g. ophiolite-dominated suprastructural rocks; volcanosedimentary succession, Neoproterozoic volcanism and volcanic rocks in Egypt; enigmatic issues concerning granite, Dokhan and Hammamat sediments; the lithospheric mantle beneath the Northeast African continent and the mantle section of Neoproterozoic ophiolites from the PABE; sutures, megashears and petrogenetic evolution of the Neoproterozoic rocks of Egypt; and metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits in the PABE, which are covered in extensive detail. The book’s closing chapters discuss the application of remote sensing techniques and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) to decipher the tectonic evolution of the PABE, as well as the use of geophysical data to map structural features and hydrothermal alteration zones in the PABE.
The Geology of the Everglades and Adjacent Areas
by Edward J. Petuch Charles RobertsPainting a complete picture of the history of the Everglades, The Geology of the Everglades and Adjacent Areas brings together theperspectives of various geoscientists to provides an overview of the geology, paleontology, and paleoceanography of the Everglades region. It emphasizes the upper 300 m of the geologic framework of the area and gives insight into the local stratigraphy, geomorphology, lithology, and historical geology. Building upon the geologic nomenclature and stratigraphic sequences set down by the Florida Geological Survey, the book includes redefinitions of some previously poorly known formations, the chronological fine-tuning of other poorly known units, and the description of 7 new members.Designed to be a field guide as well as a reference, the book is illustrated with photographs of exposed geologic sections, stratotype localities, collection sites, and details of interesting fossil beds. It contains 124 full-page illustrations with 69 black and white figures, 43 black and white plates of index fossils, and 12 full color plates of simulated space shuttle images of Florida’s ancient seas and coastlines. This text is accompanied by downloadable resources that feature animated maps along with a Power Point presentation of simulated space shuttle imagery of Eocene-to-Holocene Florida. The book is arranged by geologic time, ranging from the late Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene to the Holocene. The authors place lithostratigraphic descriptions of the geologic formations and members into this chronological framework, along with the paleogeography of the seas and lakes within which they were deposited. They also emphasize biostratigraphy with over 1000 index fossils listed and over 400 illustrated. The book brings together information previously spread through innumerable publications, saving you the time and effort it would take to assemble and cross-reference multiple sources.
Geology of the Florida Keys
by Eugene A. Shinn Barbara H. Lidz"A joy to read from two of the most prominent geologists who have worked for the better part of their careers in the Florida Keys. Places important environmental focus on modern-day issues facing the island ecosystems, the health of Florida Bay, the nearshore areas, and ultimately the reef tract."--Donald F. McNeill, University of Miami "A compelling narrative that weaves fascinating historical personalities and periods with the geological characteristics of the Florida Keys into a colorful tapestry. A fun, interesting, and informative read!"--Eugene C. Rankey, University of Kansas Two world-class geologists draw on their prolific fifty-year careers in this comprehensive guide to the geology and biology of the Florida Keys and Florida Bay. Eugene Shinn and Barbara Lidz dive into the past, present, and future of an area that has long been a natural laboratory for learning about coral reef formation and the origins of limestone. They explain how underlying Pleistocene topography controls the shapes of today's coral reefs, how sea-level rise created Florida Bay, and how hurricanes mold limemud banks and strip vegetation from the Florida Keys. They discuss the recent decline of coral reefs due to overpopulation, pollution, climate change, and other factors. An itinerary is included for a hands-on three-day field trip, guiding visitors to the best places to see the famous reef formations and geologic processes of the Keys. As glaciers continue to melt and reform at Earth's poles, sea level is currently rising and will fall again at some point in the geologic future. In this volume, Shinn and Lidz demonstrate the value of the Keys and immediate surroundings as an environmental laboratory to study past effects of sea-level change and to stimulate ideas for further research.
Geology of the Great Plains and Mountain West
by Cynthia Light BrownAnswering intriguing questions such as Why does the largest river system in North America meander across the middle of the continent? and How does such a system relate to the rugged Rocky Mountains?, this fun-filled book delves into the majestic Great Plains region. The chapters concisely clarify the interrelated subjects of terrain, climate, and the great movements of the earth itself while illustrating the important changes that are still occurring in the area's rivers, lakes, plains, and unpredictable weather. Brimming with fascinating facts, educational sidebars tell how earthquakes in New Madrid, Missouri caused waves to go upstream in the Mississippi River; why and how tornadoes form; and how invasive species are threatening the Great Lakes and what people are doing about it.
Geology of the Nepal Himalaya: Regional Perspective Of The Classic Collided Orogen (Regional Geology Reviews Ser.)
by Megh Raj DhitalThis book addresses the geology of the entire Himalayan range in Nepal, i. e. , from the Gangetic plain in the south to the Tethyan zone in the north. Without a comprehensive look at the various Himalayan zones, it is practically impossible to fully grasp the processes at work behind the formation and development of the spectacular Himalaya. However, the goal is not merely to document all the scientific ontology but rather to reveal a sound basis for the prevailing concepts. Both the early literature on Himalayan geology and contemporary trends are fully covered. For the first time, the origin, use, and abuse of common Himalayan geological terms such as the Siwaliks, Lesser Himalaya, Main Boundary Thrust, Main Central Thrust, and Tethys are discussed. The book will help readers to progress from a cognitive approach to a constructive one by linking various types of knowledge, such as seeking relations between various geological structures as well as between earlier thoughts or views and contemporary approaches.
Geology of the Oman Mountains, Eastern Arabia (GeoGuide)
by Mike SearleThis book describes in detail numerous geological sites throughout the mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in Eastern Arabia. The region is well known for its oil and gas reserves in the desert interior, and Permian-Mesozoic shelf carbonates exposed in the mountains of the Musandam peninsula, Jebel al-Akhdar and Saih Hatat, where deep wadi canyons provide impressive three-dimensional views into the crust. The region has numerous globally important geological sites, including the world’s largest and best-exposed ophiolite complex, the Semail Ophiolite, which is a vast thrust sheet of Cretaceous ocean crust and upper mantle emplaced onto the Arabian continental margin. Other sites include spectacular fossil localities, subduction zone metamorphic rocks (eclogites, blueschists, amphibolites), fold-thrust belts, giant sheath folds and Precambrian salt domes, as well as the huge sand dunes of the Rub al’Khali, the Empty Quarter, and the separate Wahiba (Sharkiyah) sandsea of Eastern Oman.Written by Mike Searle, who has worked on geological research projects throughout Oman and UAE almost every year since 1978, this book describes the field geology of each site and includes a wealth of maps, field photos and diagrams illustrating key features. It also discusses the history of exploration of Arabia and the search for its hidden geological secrets. The book provides the geological basis for the establishment of a series of World Heritage Sites, National GeoParks and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) throughout the region. As such, it is of interest to geologists, tourists, mountaineers, trekkers, rock climbers and naturalists.
Geology of the San Francisco Bay Region (California Natural History Guides)
by Doris SloanThis book is for San Francisco Bay Area residents and visitors who want to explore the geologic world of this spectacular area, to learn about its shapes, colors, and rocky foundations. Doris Sloan illuminates the colorful geologic mosaic that surrounds San Francisco Bay and lucidly explains the complex and fascinating processes that have forged it over millions of years.
Geology of the Sierra Nevada (Revised Edition)
by Mary HillThe author introduces the rocks of the Sierra Nevada, which tell the mountains' tale, and explains how nature's forces, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, faulting, erosion, and glaciation formed the range's world-renowned scenery and mineral wealth, including gold.
Geology, Petrochemistry and Ore Content of Carbonaceous Deposits of the Kumak Ore Field (Springer Geology)
by Alexandra V. Panteleeva Aleksandr V. SnachevThe main prospects for expanding the mineral resource base of gold are associated with the discovery of typical ore objects within the distribution of productive black shale strata in the Orenburg part of the Southern Urals. The solution of this problem is significantly associated with the discovery, evaluation and involvement in the industrial development of gold deposits lying in the black shale strata. Their practical significance, based on existing concepts, can be considered in several aspects: first of all, it is a possible source of metals, and secondly, they are a reducing geochemical barrier for the deposition of ore matter of deep fluids. The formations of the black shale formation are a favorable geochemical environment for the primary concentration of gold, platinum group elements, tungsten, molybdenum and other metals. Areas of manifestation of tectonic activity, zonal and contact metamorphism, and the dyke complex are of great importance. Moreover, carbonaceous deposits are a very informative material for the reconstruction of paleogeographic and physico-chemical conditions of their accumulation. In this regard, the ore-containing black shales of the Kumak deposit, whose rocks have a specialization in gold, seem to be a very attractive object for a comprehensive study of ore content. They may be of great practical importance for the search for new deposits in the Southern Urals and in other regions with a similar geological structure.
Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India
by Chaitanya B. PandeThis book examines novel geological formations and lava flows of basaltic rock in India, and provides a comprehensive understanding of basaltic rock geology, petrography, stratigraphy and geochemistry. Readers are given insight into the geologic conditions of basaltic rock in central India, and a basic introduction to field geology methods and parameters in the study region. The author shows detailed petrographic and mineralogical characteristics of various basaltic rock formations, and identifies key features using major, trace and rare earth element stratigraphic analysis. An analysis of the sequence of hydro-geological formations of the basaltic rock area using ground water fluctuation models is also provided to assess surface and groundwater resources, which are important for planning development in the basaltic hard rock area. The book aims to be a resource for researchers, scientists, teachers and students interested in geology, petrography and geochemistry.
Geomagnetic Observations and Models
by M. Mandea Monika KorteThis volume provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas linked to geomagnetic field observation, from instrumentation to methodology, on ground or near-Earth. Efforts are also focused on a 21st century e-Science approach to open access to all geomagnetic data, but also to the data preservation, data discovery, data rescue, and capacity building. Finally, modeling magnetic fields with different internal origins, with their variation in space and time, is an attempt to draw together into one place the traditional work in producing models as IGRF or describing the magnetic anomalies.
Geomagnetically Induced Currents from the Sun to the Power Grid (Geophysical Monograph Series #246)
by Jennifer L. Gannon Andrei Swidinsky Zhonghua XuAn introduction to geomagnetic storms and the hazards they pose at the Earth’s surface Geomagnetic storms are a type of space weather event that can create Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GICs) which, once they reach Earth’s surface, can interfere with power grids and transport infrastructure. Understanding the characteristics and impacts of GICs requires scientific insights from solar physics, magnetospheric physics, aeronomy, and ionospheric physics, as well as geophysics and power engineering. Geomagnetically Induced Currents from the Sun to the Power Grid is a practical introduction for researchers and practitioners that provides tools and techniques from across these disciplines. Volume highlights include: Analysis of causes of geomagnetic storms that create GICs Data and methods used to analyze and forecast GIC hazard GIC impacts on the infrastructure of the bulk power system Analysis techniques used in different areas of GIC research New methods to validate and predict GICs in transmission systems
Geomagnetism, Aeronomy and Space Weather: A Journey from the Earth's Core to the Sun (Special Publications of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics #4)
by Mioara Mandea Monika Korte Andrew Yau Eduard PetrovskýOn the centenary of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, this book reviews the state-of-the-art research in geomagnetism, aeronomy and space weather. Written by eminent researchers from these fields, it summarises the advances in research over the past 100 years, and looks ahead to current and emerging studies on Earth's magnetic field. It provides a comprehensive overview of the generation of Earth's magnetic field, its history and its response to external forces. Starting at the centre of the Earth, the reader is taken on a journey from the interior core and mantle, through the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere, before reaching the Sun's atmosphere and corona. The applications of this research are also discussed, particularly the societal impact of solar activity on critical infrastructures in our increasingly technologically dependant society. This book provides a valuable resource and reference to academic researchers and students in geomagnetism and aeronomy.
Geomaterials Under the Microscope: A Colour Guide
by Jeremy InghamThe first comprehensive guide to the petrography of geomaterials, making the petrographers specialist knowledge available to practitioners, educators and students worldwide interested in modern and historic construction materials.
Geomathematically Oriented Potential Theory (Chapman & Hall/CRC Pure and Applied Mathematics)
by Willi Freeden Christian GerhardsAs the Earth`s surface deviates from its spherical shape by less than 0.4 percent of its radius and today's satellite missions collect their gravitational and magnetic data on nearly spherical orbits, sphere-oriented mathematical methods and tools play important roles in studying the Earth's gravitational and magnetic field. Geomathematically Orien
Geomathematics: Theoretical Foundations, Applications and Future Developments
by Frits AgterbergThis book provides a wealth of geomathematical case history studies performed by the author during his career at the Ministry of Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada (NRCan-GSC). Several of the techniques newly developed by the author and colleagues that are described in this book have become widely adopted, not only for further research by geomathematical colleagues, but by government organizations and industry worldwide. These include Weights-of-Evidence modelling, mineral resource estimation technology, trend surface analysis, automatic stratigraphic correlation and nonlinear geochemical exploration methods. The author has developed maximum likelihood methodology and spline-fitting techniques for the construction of the international numerical geologic timescale. He has introduced the application of new theory of fractals and multi fractals in the geostatistical evaluation of regional mineral resources and ore reserves and to study the spatial distribution of metals in rocks. The book also contains sections deemed important by the author but that have not been widely adopted because they require further research. These include the geometry of preferred orientations of contours and edge effects on maps, time series analysis of Quaternary retreating ice sheet related sedimentary data, estimation of first and last appearances of fossil taxa from frequency distributions of their observed first and last occurrences, tectonic reactivation along pre-existing schistosity planes in fold belts, use of the grouped jackknife method for bias reduction in geometrical extrapolations and new applications of the theory of permanent, volume-independent frequency distributions.
Geomathematics: Modelling and Solving Mathematical Problems in Geodesy and Geophysics
by Volker MichelGeomathematics provides a comprehensive summary of the mathematical principles behind key topics in geophysics and geodesy, covering the foundations of gravimetry, geomagnetics and seismology. Theorems and their proofs explain why physical realities in geoscience are the logical mathematical consequences of basic laws. The book also derives and analyzes the theory and numerical aspects of established systems of basis functions; and presents an algorithm for combining different types of trial functions. Topics cover inverse problems and their regularization, the Laplace/Poisson equation, boundary-value problems, foundations of potential theory, the Poisson integral formula, spherical harmonics, Legendre polynomials and functions, radial basis functions, the Biot-Savart law, decomposition theorems (orthogonal, Helmholtz, and Mie), basics of continuum mechanics, conservation laws, modelling of seismic waves, the Cauchy-Navier equation, seismic rays, and travel-time tomography. Each chapter ends with review questions, with solutions for instructors available online, providing a valuable reference for graduate students and researchers.
Geomatic Approaches for Modeling Land Change Scenarios
by María Teresa Camacho Olmedo Martin Paegelow Jean-François Mas Francisco EscobarThis book provides a detailed overview of the concepts, techniques, applications, and methodological approaches involved in land use and cover change (LUCC) modeling, also known simply as land change modeling. More than 40 international experts in this field have participated in this book, which illustrates recent advances in LUCC modeling with examples from North and South America, the Middle East, and Europe. Given the broad range of geomatic approaches available, it helps readers select the approach that best meets their needs. The book is structured into five parts preceded by a foreword written by Roger White and a general introduction. Part I consists of four chapters, each of which focuses on a specific stage in the modeling process: calibration, simulation, validation, and scenarios. It presents and explains the fundamental ideas and concepts underlying LUCC modeling. This is complemented by a comparative analysis of the selected software packages, practically applied in various case studies in Part II and Part III. Part II discusses recently proposed methodological developments that have enhanced modeling procedures and results while Part III offers case studies as well as interesting, innovative methodological proposals. Part IV revises different fundamental techniques used in LUCC modeling and finally Part V describes the best-known software packages used in the applications presented in Parts II and III.
Geomatics Applied to Civil Engineering
by Irineu da Silva Paulo C. SegantineThis textbook deals jointly with theoretical and practical concepts within geomatics in civil engineering, based on the global understanding of its use. Written by civil engineers with professional backgrounds in geomatics, the book has a number of unique characteristics, including analysis of geodetic references and their coordinate systems to allow their conversions and applications taking into account the local topographic plan; analysis of the measurements of directions, angles and distances, inserting them into the concepts of practical use of modern measuring instruments; detailed description of the main components of measurement instruments used in geomatics; discussion of instrumentation errors and their implications; and a complete study of UTM Projection System and its variants, equations, and practical application in civil engineering projects. For students and instructors, and practitioners, the subjects covered in the book are organized to cover most topics related to the disciplines of surveying or geomatics studied in civil engineering courses. It is entirely based on adjustment computation for spatial data analysis including coordinate geometry and traverse computation. To this end, an entire chapter is devoted to adjustment computation based on matrix theory to help readers understand its applications in spatial data analysis throughout the book’s chapters; including chapters on modern technologies such as conventional and UAV-based digital photogrammetry, digital terrain modelling, terrestrial laser scanning and BIM.
Geomatik: Eine Einführung
by Josefine KlausWas ist eine Mercatorabbildung? Wie berechnet man Koordinaten? Wie funktioniert ein Geoinformationssystem? Diese und viele weitere Fragen beantwortet „Geomatik - Eine Einführung“ und bietet damit zum ersten Mal die theoretischen Grundlagen der Ausbildung zur/zum Geomatiker:in in einem Werk.Folgende Themen werden auf der Grundlage des bundesweit einheitlichen Rahmenlehrplans der Berufsausbildung behandelt:Organisation des Vermessungswesen Erfassung, Bearbeitung und Präsentation von Geodaten Verwaltung von GeodatenGrundlagen des Web- und Printdesigns Selbstständige Entwicklung von GeoproduktenDie Inhalte werden ergänzt durch ein auf die Prüfungen angepasstes Lernangebot und zahlreiche weiterführende Informationsquellen. Dadurch entsteht ein umfassendes und zeitgemäßes Handbuch für den Berufsschulunterricht und zur Prüfungsvorbereitung im Bereich der Geoinformatik, Vermessung und Kartographie. Aus einer modernen, digitalen Wissensvermittlung sind die visuellen und kartenbasierten Ansätze der Geomatik nicht mehr wegzudenken. Die in diesem Buch angebotenen Informationen ermöglichen es angehenden Geomatiker:innen und Interessierten selbstständig eigene Geoprodukte zu erstellen.
GeoMeasurements by Pulsing TDR Cables and Probes
by Kevin M O'Connor Charles H DowdingGeoMeasurements by Pulsing TDR Cables and Probes examines Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) research and provides information on its use as a robust, reliable, and economical production tool.Common uses for TDR technology include telecommunications and power industries, but the text examines applications such as measurement of moisture of unsaturated soils; detection of fluids for leak and pollution; measurement of water levels for hydrological purposes; measurement of water pressures beneath dams; and deformation and stability monitoring of mines, slopes, and structures.Chapters discuss:basic physics of signal generation, transmission, and attenuation along the coaxial cableprobe designs and procedures for calibration as well as the variation in probe responses to changes in water content and soil mineralogyvariations in waveform characteristics associated with cable, deformation, cable calibration, and installation techniques for metallic cables in rockseveral cases demonstrating the use of TDR cables in soil as well as weathered and soft rocka rationale for the use of compliant cable in soilthe use of metallic cable (MTDR) and optical fiber (OTDR) to monitor response of structuressensor/transducer components, connections from the sensors to the TDR pulser/sampler, and system control methodsavailable software for transmission and analysis of TDR signatures The diverse interest and terminology within the TDR community tends to obscure commonalities and the universal physical principles underlying the technology. The authors seek to crystallize the basic principles among the seemingly divergent specialties using TDR technology in geomaterials. By examining varied experiences, GeoMeasurements by Pulsing TDR Cables and Probes provides a synergistic text necessary to unify the field.
Geomechanical Aspects of Operation of Underground Gas Storage (Springer Geology)
by Vladimir Karev Yuri KovalenkoThis book is devoted to the most important and urgent problems arising during the operation of underground gas storage facilities (UGS) and associated with the destruction of the reservoir and sand production into the wells. UGS facilities play a special role in ensuring high reliability of stable and guaranteed gas supplies to consumers. However, despite many years of experience in UGS well operation, there is still no sufficiently substantiated geomechanical model of reservoir failure and a mathematical description of the processes occurring in the reservoir-well system, taking into account the peculiarities of the mechanical behavior of reservoir rocks during cyclic injection and extraction of gas. As a result, there are no reliable criteria for establishing a rational regime for the operation of an UGS wells in conditions of a possible destruction of reservoir rocks. Further development of underground gas storage direction requires the introduction of innovative technologies that can be used both in the design of new UGS facilities and to extend the safe and efficient operation of existing underground gas storage facilities. To solve these problems, the most promising technologies, taking into account their efficiency, relatively low cost and environmental safety, are those based on the geomechanical approach.The book is addressed to specialists in the development and operation of underground gas storage facilities, as well as specialists in geomechanics of oil and gas fields. It can be useful for students and graduate students studying in the speciality "Development of oil and gas fields".