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Heuristic Reasoning
by Emiliano IppolitiHow can we advance knowledge? Which methods do we need in order to make new discoveries? How can we rationally evaluate, reconstruct and offer discoveries as a means of improving the 'method' of discovery itself? And how can we use findings about scientific discovery to boost funding policies, thus fostering a deeper impact of scientific discovery itself? The respective chapters in this book provide readers with answers to these questions. They focus on a set of issues that are essential to the development of types of reasoning for advancing knowledge, such as models for both revolutionary findings and paradigm shifts; ways of rationally addressing scientific disagreement, e. g. when a revolutionary discovery sparks considerable disagreement inside the scientific community; frameworks for both discovery and inference methods; and heuristics for economics and the social sciences.
Heuristic Rhetoric: Principles and Practice (Rhetoric, Politics and Society)
by Gábor TahinThis book introduces a novel approach to the analysis and practice of persuasive speaking and writing: heuristic rhetoric. The new method has evolved to fulfil the need at universities, government departments, political organisations, business enterprises and other public institutions for a modern practical alternative to classical rhetoric, which is, in the author’s view, no longer capable of giving a complete description of contemporary, predominantly mediatised, forms of public persuasive discourse, whilst other competing disciplines, such as critical discourse analysis or strategic manoeuvring, have not yet produced a set of tools, which have the comprehensive nature and practical orientation of Classical Greek and Roman rhetorical system. The book expounds heuristic rhetoric as an inter-disciplinary method to develop advanced skills of critical and strategic reasoning. Applying a novel set of principles for the strategic analysis of persuasive reasoning in complex rhetorical situations, the method emphasizes preparing and continuously adjusting argumentation according to the demands of unpredictable circumstances.
Heydar Aliyev and the Foundations of Modern Azerbaijan
by Michael M. Gunter M. Hakan Yavuz Shamkhal AbilovThis edited book examines and analyses Heydar Aliyev, the architect and founder of modern, post-Soviet Azerbaijan. The editors of the volume discuss developments between 1993 and 2003 – a decade that saw the establishment of the institutional foundations of the current republic, the adoption of a new form of national identity, the redefinition of the concept of the Azerbaijani state, and the creation of a security establishment designed to gain control of territories Armenia had held since the 1988-1994 war over Karabakh. The book explains why this fateful period had far-reaching consequences for Azerbaijan as a fully formed state and society, as well as major implications for its political future and its geopolitical strategy.
Heyting Algebras: Duality Theory (Trends in Logic #50)
by Leo EsakiaThis book presents an English translation of a classic Russian text on duality theoryfor Heyting algebras. Written by Georgian mathematician Leo Esakia, the text provedpopular among Russian-speaking logicians. This translation helps make the ideasaccessible to a wider audience and pays tribute to an influential mind in mathematicallogic. The book discusses the theory of Heyting algebras and closure algebras, aswell as the corresponding intuitionistic and modal logics. The author introduces thekey notion of a hybrid that “crossbreeds” topology (Stone spaces) and order (Kripkeframes), resulting in the structures now known as Esakia spaces. The main theoremsinclude a duality between the categories of closure algebras and of hybrids, and a dualitybetween the categories of Heyting algebras and of so-called strict hybrids.Esakia’s book was originally published in 1985. It was the first of a planned two-volume monographon Heyting algebras. But after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the publishing houseclosed and the project died with it. Fortunately, this important work now lives on inthis accessible translation. The Appendix of the book discusses the planned contentsof the lost second volume.
Hidden Dimensions: The Unification of Physics and Consciousness
by B. Alan WallaceBridging the gap between the world of science and the realm of the spiritual, B. Alan Wallace introduces a natural theory of human consciousness that has its roots in contemporary physics and Buddhism. Wallace's "special theory of ontological relativity" suggests that mental phenomena are conditioned by the brain, but do not emerge from it. Rather, the entire natural world of mind and matter, subjects and objects, arises from a unitary dimension of reality that is more fundamental than these dualities, as proposed by Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung. To test his hypothesis, Wallace employs the Buddhist meditative practice of samatha, refining one's attention and metacognition, to create a kind of telescope to examine the space of the mind. Drawing on the work of the physicist John Wheeler, he then proposes a more general theory in which the participatory nature of reality is envisioned as a self-excited circuit. In comparing these ideas to the Buddhist theory known as the Middle Way philosophy, Wallace explores further aspects of his "general theory of ontological relativity," which can be investigated by means of vipasyana, or insight, meditation. Wallace then focuses on the theme of symmetry in reference to quantum cosmology and the "problem of frozen time," relating these issues to the theory and practices of the Great Perfection school of Tibetan Buddhism. He concludes with a discussion of the general theme of complementarity as it relates to science and religion. The theories of relativity and quantum mechanics were major achievements in the physical sciences, and the theory of evolution has had an equally deep impact on the life sciences. However, rigorous scientific methods do not yet exist to observe mental phenomena, and naturalism has its limits for shedding light on the workings of the mind. A pioneer of modern consciousness research, Wallace offers a practical and revolutionary method for exploring the mind that combines the keenest insights of contemporary physicists and philosophers with the time-honored meditative traditions of Buddhism.
Hidden Dimensions: The Unification of Physics and Consciousness (Columbia Series in Science and Religion)
by B. Alan WallaceBridging the gap between the world of science and the realm of the spiritual, B. Alan Wallace introduces a natural theory of human consciousness that has its roots in contemporary physics and Buddhism. Wallace's "special theory of ontological relativity" suggests that mental phenomena are conditioned by the brain, but do not emerge from it. Rather, the entire natural world of mind and matter, subjects and objects, arises from a unitary dimension of reality that is more fundamental than these dualities, as proposed by Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung.To test his hypothesis, Wallace employs the Buddhist meditative practice of samatha, refining one's attention and metacognition, to create a kind of telescope to examine the space of the mind. Drawing on the work of the physicist John Wheeler, he then proposes a more general theory in which the participatory nature of reality is envisioned as a self-excited circuit. In comparing these ideas to the Buddhist theory known as the Middle Way philosophy, Wallace explores further aspects of his "general theory of ontological relativity," which can be investigated by means of vipasyana, or insight, meditation. Wallace then focuses on the theme of symmetry in reference to quantum cosmology and the "problem of frozen time," relating these issues to the theory and practices of the Great Perfection school of Tibetan Buddhism. He concludes with a discussion of the general theme of complementarity as it relates to science and religion.The theories of relativity and quantum mechanics were major achievements in the physical sciences, and the theory of evolution has had an equally deep impact on the life sciences. However, rigorous scientific methods do not yet exist to observe mental phenomena, and naturalism has its limits for shedding light on the workings of the mind. A pioneer of modern consciousness research, Wallace offers a practical and revolutionary method for exploring the mind that combines the keenest insights of contemporary physicists and philosophers with the time-honored meditative traditions of Buddhism.
Hidden Divinity and Religious Belief
by Adam GreenThis collection of new essays written by an international team of scholars is a groundbreaking examination of the problem of divine hiddenness, one of the most dynamic areas in current philosophy of religion. Together, the essays constitute a wide-ranging dialogue on the problem. They balance atheistic and theistic standpoints, and they bring to bear not only on the standard philosophical perspectives but also on insights from Jewish, Muslim, and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The apophatic and the mystical are well-represented too. As a result, the volume throws fresh light on this familiar but important topic in the philosophy of religion. In the process, the volume incorporates contemporary work in epistemology, philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. For all these reasons, this book will be of great interest to researchers and advanced students in philosophy of religion and theology.
Hidden Harmony: The Connected Worlds of Physics and Art
by Jack R. LeibowitzMost "art and science" books focus on the science of perspective or the psychology of perception. Hidden Harmony does not. Instead, the book addresses the surprising common ground between physics and art from a novel and personal perspective. Viewing the two disciplines as creative processes, J.R. Leibowitz supplements existing and original research with illustrations to demonstrate that physics and art share guiding aesthetics and compositional demands and to show how each speaks meaningfully to the other. Hidden Harmony is the first serious look at what art and physics, as creative processes, have in common. Without assuming a background either in art or physics, the author widens our experience and understanding of both domains by exploring how concepts such as balance and re-balance, coherence and unity, and symmetry and broken symmetry affect and are affected by artistic vision and scientific principle. He reveals shared themes and understandings in each field and adroitly illustrates the parallels between the strategies guiding the dabs of color and layers of images in a work of art and those guiding the assembly of physical evidence into models of the physical world. Featuring examples of paintings and sculptures and complementary examples of physical concepts, this contemplative work helps us see art and physics as artists and physicists do.
Hidden History of American Democracy: Rediscovering Humanity's Ancient Way of Living
by Thom HartmannAmerica's most popular progressive radio host and New York Times bestselling author Thom Hartmann paves the way to saving our democracy. In this powerful, sweeping history and analysis of American democracy, Thom Hartmann shows how democracy is the one form of governance most likely to produce peace and happiness among people. With the violent exception of the Civil War, American democracy resisted the pressure to disintegrate into factionalism for nearly two centuries, and now our very system of democratic elections is at stake. So how do we save our democracy? Hartmann's newest book in the celebrated Hidden History Series offers a clear call to action and a set of solutions with road maps for individuals and communities to follow to create a safer, more just society and a more equitable and prosperous economy.
Hidden Lessons: Growing Up on the Frontline of Teaching
by Mehreen Baig'Beautifully written, Hidden Lessons is both a heart-rending account of the challenges in our education system, and a heart-warming celebration of teachers and students who have triumphed through adversity. The pride Mehreen has for her community and the lives she has touched is palpable.' - DAVID LAMMY~~~~~~~~~~~~You're in at 7am, there until 7pm and marking into the late hours. You've got one student who's a full time carer, another who's pregnant, and a third who's just joined a gang. You haven't got enough textbooks to go around, and one of the parents just called you an 'extremist'. You've just gone through a devastating heartbreak and you have to teach Romeo and Juliet to 30 hormonal 14 year olds.Welcome to life as a teacher.This is a world that all of us know, but most of us have completely forgotten. It's a world where you're working 50 hour weeks, but you're still just a part-time teacher because the rest of the time you're a security guard, a nurse, a counsellor, or a friend. It's also a world where you spend all day with some of the most interesting people you know. And even when the lesson plan has been abandoned, you're still learning.Mehreen started teaching at 21, and by the time she left 10 years later she'd learnt a bit about teenagers and a lot about life. This is her story.
Hidden Lessons: Growing Up on the Frontline of Teaching
by Mehreen Baig'Beautifully written, Hidden Lessons is both a heart-rending account of the challenges in our education system, and a heart-warming celebration of teachers and students who have triumphed through adversity. The pride Mehreen has for her community and the lives she has touched is palpable.' - DAVID LAMMY~~~~~~~~~~~~You're in at 7am, there until 7pm and marking into the late hours. You've got one student who's a full time carer, another who's pregnant, and a third who's just joined a gang. You haven't got enough textbooks to go around, and one of the parents just called you an 'extremist'. You've just gone through a devastating heartbreak and you have to teach Romeo and Juliet to 30 hormonal 14 year olds.Welcome to life as a teacher.This is a world that all of us know, but most of us have completely forgotten. It's a world where you're working 50 hour weeks, but you're still just a part-time teacher because the rest of the time you're a security guard, a nurse, a counsellor, or a friend. It's also a world where you spend all day with some of the most interesting people you know. And even when the lesson plan has been abandoned, you're still learning.Mehreen started teaching at 21, and by the time she left 10 years later she'd learnt a bit about teenagers and a lot about life. This is her story.
Hidden Lessons: Growing Up on the Frontline of Teaching
by Mehreen BaigHilarious and heart-warming and utterly compelling, Hidden Lessons lets you in on the life secrets all teachers know.You're in at 7am, there until 7pm and marking into the late hours. You've got one student who's a full time carer, another who's pregnant, and a third who's just joined a gang. You haven't got enough textbooks to go around, and one of the parents just called you an 'extremist'. You've just gone through a devastating heartbreak and you have to teach Romeo and Juliet to 30 hormonal 14 year olds. Welcome to life as a teacher.This is a world that all of us know, but most of us have completely forgotten. It's a world where you're working 50 hour weeks, but you're still just a part-time teacher because the rest of the time you're a security guard, a nurse, a counsellor, or a friend. It's also a world where you spend all day with some of the most interesting people you know. And even when the lesson plan has been abandoned, you're still learning. Mehreen started teaching at 21, and by the time she left 10 years later she'd learnt a bit about teenagers and a lot about life. This is her story.(P) 2021 Hodder & Stoughton Limited
Hidden Markets: Public Policy and the Push to Privatize Education (Critical Social Thought)
by Patricia BurchAcross the United States, test publishers, software companies, and research firms continue to take advantage of the revenues made available by federal policies like the No Child Left Behind Act, Race to the Top, and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. In effect, the education industry has assumed a central place in the day-to-day governance and administration of public schools—a previously hidden trend that has begun to be a ubiquitous component of public education. Drawing on analytic tools, Hidden Markets examines specific domains that the education industry has had particular influence on—home schooling, remedial instruction, management consulting, test development, data management, and staff development. With updated and new material added, this second edition also highlights how technology and technology policy shape the conditions for teachers’ work, the role of natural disasters as education market opportunities, and the connection between racism and educational privatization. Burch's analysis demonstrates that only when we subject the education industry to systematic and in-depth critical analysis can we begin to demand more corporate accountability and organize to halt the slide of education funds into the market. Additional updates include: Discussion of the role that policy elites play in allowing CEOS to regulate the student identity market Examination of the rise of online tutoring engineered in part by the No Child Left Behind Act New chapter that offers an updated road map for policymakers and activists concerned about the issues raised within the book
Hidden Markets: The New Education Privatization (Critical Social Thought)
by Patricia BurchAcross the U.S., test publishers, software companies, and research firms are swarming to take advantage of the revenues made available by the No Child Left Behind Act. In effect, the education industry has assumed a central place in the day-to-day governance and administration of public schools—a trend that has gone largely unnoticed by policymakers or the press until now. Drawing on analytic tools, Hidden Markets examines specific domains that the education industry has had particular influence on—home schooling, remedial instruction, management consulting, test development, data management, and staff development. Burch's analysis demonstrates that only when we subject the education industry to systematic and in-depth critical analysis can we begin to demand more corporate accountability and organize to halt the slide of education funds into the market.
Hidden Sexualities of South African Teachers: Black Male Educators and Same-sex Desire (Routledge Critical Studies in Gender and Sexuality in Education)
by Thabo MsibiSouth Africa remains a global leader in the legislative protection of individuals who engage in same-sex relations, and is the only country in Africa where the rights of these individuals are explicitly recognized and protected by the constitution. Yet South Africa’s identities are still contested and evolving, particularly for same-sex desiring teachers – many are forced to locate their sexualities privately for fear of being ostracized, bullied or losing their jobs, resulting in the miseducation of young people in schools. This volume reveals the various ways in which black South African male teachers construct their sexual and professional identities, how they accommodate structural dictates while simultaneously resisting them, and the effect this has on students. Presenting the day-to-day experiences of eight same-sex desiring teachers within repressive contexts, this volume challenges the Western origins and assumptions of queer theory, particularly its inability to confront communal forms of social organizing and its focus on individual agency. It asks for more socially responsive theorizing that takes into account the role played by location, race, class, gender and sexual identification within South African and international contexts.
Hidden Worldviews: Eight Cultural Stories That Shape Our Lives
by Steve Wilkens Mark L. SanfordWhy do we buy what we buy, vote the way we vote, eat what we eat and say what we say? Why do we have the friends we have, and work and play as we do? It's our choice? Yes, but there are forces, often unseen, that shape every decision we make and every action we take. These hidden, life-shaping values and ideas are not promoted through organized religions or rival philosophies but fostered by cultural habits, lifestyles and the institutional structures of society. Steve Wilkens and Mark Sanford shine a spotlight on the profound challenges to Christianity and faithful Christian living that come from worldviews that comprise the cultural soup we swim in. The authors show how to detect the individualism, consumerism, nationalism, moral relativism, scientific naturalism, New Age thinking, postmodern tribalism and salvation as therapy that fly under our radar. Building on the work of worldview thinkers like James Sire, this book helps those committed to the gospel story recognize those rival cultural stories that compete for our hearts and minds.
Hidden Worldviews: Eight Cultural Stories That Shape Our Lives
by Steve Wilkens Mark L. SanfordWhy do we buy what we buy, vote the way we vote, eat what we eat and say what we say? Why do we have the friends we have, and work and play as we do? It's our choice? Yes, but there are forces, often unseen, that shape every decision we make and every action we take. These hidden, life-shaping values and ideas are not promoted through organized religions or rival philosophies but fostered by cultural habits, lifestyles and the institutional structures of society. Steve Wilkens and Mark Sanford shine a spotlight on the profound challenges to Christianity and faithful Christian living that come from worldviews that comprise the cultural soup we swim in. The authors show how to detect the individualism, consumerism, nationalism, moral relativism, scientific naturalism, New Age thinking, postmodern tribalism and salvation as therapy that fly under our radar. Building on the work of worldview thinkers like James Sire, this book helps those committed to the gospel story recognize those rival cultural stories that compete for our hearts and minds.
Hidden Zen: Practices for Sudden Awakening and Embodied Realization
by Meido MooreDiscover hidden practices, secretly transmitted in authentic Zen lineages, of using body, speech, and mind to remove obstructions to awakening.Though Zen is best known for the practices of koan introspection and "just sitting" or shikantaza, there are in fact many other practices transmitted in Zen lineages. In modern practice settings, students will find that Bodhidharma's words "direct pointing at the human mind" are little mentioned, or else taken to be simply a general descriptor of Zen rather than a crucial activity within Zen practice. Reversing this trend toward homogeneous and superficial understandings of Zen technique, Hidden Zen presents a diverse collection of practice instructions that are transmitted orally from teacher to student, unlocking a comprehensive path of awakening.This book reveals and details, for the first time, a treasury of "direct pointing" and internal energy cultivation practices preserved in the Rinzai Zen tradition. The twenty-eight practices of direct pointing offered here illuminate one's innate clarity and, ultimately, the nature of mind itself. Over a dozen practices of internal energetic cultivation galvanize dramatic effects on the depth of one's meditative attainment. Hidden Zen affords a small taste of the richness of authentic Zen, helping readers grow beyond the bounds of introspection and sitting to find awakening itself.
Hide Your Children: Exposing the Marxists Behind the Attack on America's Kids
by Liz WheelerHaving conquered all the major institutions of our culture, the left is closing in on its final frontier—your children. In this new book, Liz Wheeler exposes where the forces of wokeness are at work and explains how parents can fight back for a change. Everything is on the line.Despite the occasional victory, conservatives are on the defensive on every front of the culture wars, especially America&’s schools. Planned Parenthood is funding gender theory indoctrination, groomer teachers are introducing youngsters to pornography, Disney executives are bragging about their &“queerness agenda,&” and teacher&’s unions are poisoning young minds with racism. If someone doesn&’t stand up and fight, these ideas will be the norm for a new generation. A distressing number of parents refuse to see how depraved our schools have become. The next generation will determine the fate of the American experiment in ordered liberty. Will they pass it on to their children, or will we lose our nation forever? Parents and their allies must go on the offensive in this existential fight. Fortunately, they have the truth on their side. It is not too late.
Hiding from Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law
by Martha C. NussbaumShould laws about sex and pornography be based on social conventions about what is disgusting? Should felons be required to display bumper stickers or wear T-shirts that announce their crimes? This powerful and elegantly written book, by one of America's most influential philosophers, presents a critique of the role that shame and disgust play in our individual and social lives and, in particular, in the law. Martha Nussbaum argues that we should be wary of these emotions because they are associated in troubling ways with a desire to hide from our humanity, embodying an unrealistic and sometimes pathological wish to be invulnerable. Nussbaum argues that the thought-content of disgust embodies "magical ideas of contamination, and impossible aspirations to purity that are just not in line with human life as we know it." She argues that disgust should never be the basis for criminalizing an act, or play either the aggravating or the mitigating role in criminal law it currently does. She writes that we should be similarly suspicious of what she calls "primitive shame," a shame "at the very fact of human imperfection," and she is harshly critical of the role that such shame plays in certain punishments. Drawing on an extraordinarily rich variety of philosophical, psychological, and historical references--from Aristotle and Freud to Nazi ideas about purity--and on legal examples as diverse as the trials of Oscar Wilde and the Martha Stewart insider trading case, this is a major work of legal and moral philosophy.
Hiding in the Mirror
by Krauss Lawrence M.An exploration of mankind's fascination with worlds beyond our own-by the bestselling author of The Physics of Star Trek Lawrence Krauss-an international leader in physics and cosmology-examines our long and ardent romance with parallel universes, veiled dimensions, and regions of being that may extend tantalizingly beyond the limits of our perception. Krauss examines popular culture's current embrace (and frequent misunderstanding) of such topics as black holes, life in other dimensions, strings, and some of the more extraordinary new theories that propose the existence of vast extra dimensions alongside our own.
Hierarchical Emergent Ontology and the Universal Principle of Emergence
by Vladimír HavlíkThis book offers a new look at emergence in terms of a hierarchical emergent ontology. Emergence is recognised as a universal principle, as universal as the principle of evolution. This is achieved by setting out the ontological criteria of emergence and such criteria’s various roles. The traditional dichotomies are overcome, e.g., the synchronic and diachronic perspectives are unified, allowing a single, universal principle of emergence to be applied across various fields of science. As exemplars of its practical utility in both explanation and prediction, this new approach is applied to three different scientific areas: cellular automata, quantum Hall effects, and the neural network of the mind. It proves that the resulting metaphysics of hierarchical emergent ontology plays a fundamental role in unifying science, an impossible task under classical reductionism.
Hierarchical Evolutionary-Developmental Theory: Towards a New Theory of Evolution (Evolutionary Biology – New Perspectives on Its Development #9)
by Carlos OchoaThis book introduces a new evolutionary model called &“Hierarchical Evolutionary-Developmental Theory&” or &“H-Evo-Devo Theory.&” This theory proposes that the organism&’s internal properties reflect entities that are highly integrated in developmental terms that evolve hierarchically. In other words, it attempts to demonstrate that developmental constraints operate at different scales, producing distinct states of morphological stability reflected as subspecies, species, higher taxa, and homologues, all representing units of evolution. In addition, it reintroduces the concept of the &“organism&” in evolutionary biology, supports a strictly macroevolutionary view, and contemplates alternative evolutionary rates, processes, and mechanisms at different levels: microevolution, macroevolution, megaevolution, and modular-evolution. In short, this book establishes a new synthesis between systematics, morphology, and evolution, suggesting a significant shift in evolutionary thought. The book comprises:1. A proposal for a new theory of evolution and systematics: The H-Evo-Devo Theory reinterprets the concepts of subspecies, species, higher taxa, and homologues, proposing that the phylogenetic tree is built on a hierarchy of types, developed from the top-down, in contrast to the traditional bottom-up approach.2. A novel hierarchical perspective that reveals the underlying mechanisms acting on the patterns of divergence, stability, and extinction of the units of evolution.3. A resolution to the ontological problem regarding units of evolution (e.g., the reality of species and higher taxa).4. A historical narrative that focuses on the development of a hierarchy theory of evolution grounded in the type concept and the significance of an organism-centered perspective.5. A challenge to traditional frameworks that have sought to establish hierarchies in an evolutionary context.6. A challenge to classical evolutionary statements such as gradualism, punctuated equilibrium, the extrapolationist premise, and geographical models of speciation. This book is written for those who feel that radical change is needed in evolutionary theory, offering them a viable alternative.
Hierarchical Type-2 Fuzzy Aggregation of Fuzzy Controllers
by Oscar Castillo Leticia CervantesThisbook focuses on the fields of fuzzy logic, granular computing and alsoconsidering the control area. These areas can work together to solve variouscontrol problems, the idea is that this combination of areas would enable evenmore complex problem solving and better results. Inthis book we test the proposed method using two benchmark problems: the totalflight control and the problem of water level control for a 3 tank system. Whenfuzzy logic is used it make it easy to performed the simulations, these fuzzysystems help to model the behavior of a real systems, using the fuzzysystems fuzzy rules are generated and with this can generate the behavior ofany variable depending on the inputs and linguistic value. For this reason thiswork considers the proposed architecture using fuzzy systems and with thisimprove the behavior of the complex control problems.
Hierarchies in the Brain, Mind and Behaviour: A Principle Of Neural and Mental Function
by Gerald WiestThe book describes the theoretical foundations and phenomenology of a hierarchical functional and organizational principle that is reflected in various concepts of the brain and mind. According to these ideas, neural and mental function is understood as the result of hierarchical superpositions that are hallmarks of ontogenetic and phylogenetic development. The model implies control of subordinate elements by superior elements, so that a disruption in this organization offers new possibilities for interpreting neural, mental and psychopathological phenomena. Hierarchical principles can be found in concepts of neurology, neuroethology and psychoanalysis, as well as in the theory of microgenesis. By incorporating evolutionary and hierarchical aspects into explanatory models of human mind and behaviour, this approach contrasts with the modular concepts of cognitive neuroscience.