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Hannah Arendt and Education: Renewing our Common World
by Mordechai Gordon"Hannah Arendt And Education: Renewing Our Common Worlda"is the first book to bring together a collection of essays on Hannah Arendt and education. The contributors contend that Arendt offers a unique perspective, one which enhances the liberal and critical traditions'' call for transforming education so that it can foster the values of democratic citizenship and social justice. They focus on a wide array of Arendtian conceptsOCosuch as natality, action, freedom, public space, authority and judgmentOCowhich are particularly relevant for education in a democratic society. Teachers, educators, and citizens in general who are interested in democratic or civic education would benefit from reading this book. "
Hannah Arendt And Education
by Mordechai GordonHannah Arendt And Education: Renewing Our Common World is the first book to bring together a collection of essays on Hannah Arendt and education. The contributors contend that Arendt offers a unique perspective, one which enhances the liberal and critical traditions' call for transforming education so that it can foster the values of democratic citizenship and social justice. They focus on a wide array of Arendtian concepts--such as natality, action, freedom, public space, authority and judgment--which are particularly relevant for education in a democratic society. Teachers, educators, and citizens in general who are interested in democratic or civic education would benefit from reading this book.
Hannah Arendt and Human Rights: The Predicament of Common Responsibility (Studies in Continental Thought)
by Peg BirminghamHannah Arendt's most important contribution to political thought may be her well-known and often-cited notion of the "right to have rights." In this incisive and wide-ranging book, Peg Birmingham explores the theoretical and social foundations of Arendt's philosophy on human rights. Devoting special consideration to questions and issues surrounding Arendt's ideas of common humanity, human responsibility, and natality, Birmingham formulates a more complex view of how these basic concepts support Arendt's theory of human rights. Birmingham considers Arendt's key philosophical works along with her literary writings, especially those on Walter Benjamin and Franz Kafka, to reveal the extent of Arendt's commitment to humanity even as violence, horror, and pessimism overtook Europe during World War II and its aftermath. This current and lively book makes a significant contribution to philosophy, political science, and European intellectual history.
Hannah Arendt and Isaiah Berlin: Freedom, Politics and Humanity
by Kei HirutaFor the first time, the full story of the conflict between two of the twentieth century’s most important thinkers—and how their profound disagreements continue to offer important lessons for political theory and philosophyTwo of the most iconic thinkers of the twentieth century, Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) and Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997) fundamentally disagreed on central issues in politics, history and philosophy. In spite of their overlapping lives and experiences as Jewish émigré intellectuals, Berlin disliked Arendt intensely, saying that she represented “everything that I detest most,” while Arendt met Berlin’s hostility with indifference and suspicion. Written in a lively style, and filled with drama, tragedy and passion, Hannah Arendt and Isaiah Berlin tells, for the first time, the full story of the fraught relationship between these towering figures, and shows how their profoundly different views continue to offer important lessons for political thought today.Drawing on a wealth of new archival material, Kei Hiruta traces the Arendt–Berlin conflict, from their first meeting in wartime New York through their widening intellectual chasm during the 1950s, the controversy over Arendt’s 1963 book Eichmann in Jerusalem, their final missed opportunity to engage with each other at a 1967 conference and Berlin’s continuing animosity toward Arendt after her death. Hiruta blends political philosophy and intellectual history to examine key issues that simultaneously connected and divided Arendt and Berlin, including the nature of totalitarianism, evil and the Holocaust, human agency and moral responsibility, Zionism, American democracy, British imperialism and the Hungarian Revolution. But, most of all, Arendt and Berlin disagreed over a question that goes to the heart of the human condition: what does it mean to be free?
Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger: History of a Love (Studies in Continental Thought)
by Antonia Grunenberg Elizabeth von Witzke BirminghamA biographical account of two major thinkers of the twentieth century, a relationship marked as much by estrangement and distance as reunion and friendship.How could Hannah Arendt, a German Jew who fled Germany in 1931, have reconciled with Martin Heidegger, whom she knew had joined and actively participated in the Nazi Party? In this remarkable biography, Antonia Grunenberg tells how the relationship between Arendt and Heidegger embraced both love and thought and made their passions inseparable, both philosophically and romantically. Grunenberg recounts how the history between Arendt and Heidegger is entwined with the history of the twentieth century with its breaks, catastrophes, and crises. Against the violent backdrop of the last century, she details their complicated and often fissured relationship as well as their intense commitments to thinking.“Focuses on a relationship that began when Arendt was a student in the 1920s, was broken between 1933 and 45, and resumed after the war.” —The Chronicle of Higher Education
Hannah Arendt and Participatory Democracy: A People's Utopia
by Shmuel LedermanThis book centers on a relatively neglected theme in the scholarly literature on Hannah Arendt's political thought: her support for a new form of government in which citizen councils would replace contemporary representative democracy and allow citizens to participate directly in decision-making in the public sphere.The main argument of the book is that the council system, or more broadly the vision of participatory democracy was far more important to Arendt than is commonly understood. Seeking to demonstrate the close links between the council system Arendt advocated and other major themes in her work, the book focuses particularly on her critique of the nation-state and her call for a new international order in which human dignity and “the right to have rights” will be guaranteed; her conception of “the political” and the conditions that can make this experience possible; the relationship between philosophy and politics; and the challenge of political judgement in the modern world.
Hannah Arendt and the Challenge of Modernity: A Phenomenology of Human Rights
by Serena ParekhHannah Arendt and the Challenge of Modernity explores the theme of human rights in the work of Hannah Arendt. Parekh argues that Arendt's contribution to this debate has been largely ignored because she does not speak in the same terms as contemporary theoreticians of human rights. Beginning by examining Arendt’s critique of human rights, and the concept of "a right to have rights" with which she contrasts the traditional understanding of human rights, Parekh goes on to analyze some of the tensions and paradoxes within the modern conception of human rights that Arendt brings to light, arguing that Arendt’s perspective must be understood as phenomenological and grounded in a notion of intersubjectivity that she develops in her readings of Kant and Socrates.
Hannah Arendt and the Limits of Total Domination: The Holocaust, Plurality, and Resistance (Routledge Studies in Social and Political Thought)
by Michal AharonyResponding to the increasingly influential role of Hannah Arendt’s political philosophy in recent years, Hannah Arendt and the Limits of Total Domination: The Holocaust, Plurality, and Resistance, critically engages with Arendt’s understanding of totalitarianism. According to Arendt, the main goal of totalitarianism was total domination; namely, the virtual eradication of human legality, morality, individuality, and plurality. This attempt, in her view, was most fully realized in the concentration camps, which served as the major "laboratories" for the regime. While Arendt focused on the perpetrators’ logic and drive, Michal Aharony examines the perspectives and experiences of the victims and their ability to resist such an experiment. The first book-length study to juxtapose Arendt’s concept of total domination with actual testimonies of Holocaust survivors, this book calls for methodological pluralism and the integration of the voices and narratives of the actors in the construction of political concepts and theoretical systems. To achieve this, Aharony engages with both well-known and non-canonical intellectuals and writers who survived Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps. Additionally, she analyzes the oral testimonies of survivors who are largely unknown, drawing from interviews conducted in Israel and in the U.S., as well as from videotaped interviews from archives around the world. Revealing various manifestations of unarmed resistance in the camps, this study demonstrates the persistence of morality and free agency even under the most extreme and de-humanizing conditions, while cautiously suggesting that absolute domination is never as absolute as it claims or wishes to be. Scholars of political philosophy, political science, history, and Holocaust studies will find this an original and compelling book.
Hannah Arendt and the Negro Question
by Kathryn T. GinesWhile acknowledging Hannah Arendt's keen philosophical and political insights, Kathryn T. Gines claims that there are some problematic assertions and oversights regarding Arendt's treatment of the "Negro question." Gines focuses on Arendt's reaction to the desegregation of Little Rock schools, to laws making mixed marriages illegal, and to the growing civil rights movement in the south. Reading them alongside Arendt's writings on revolution, the human condition, violence, and responses to the Eichmann war crimes trial, Gines provides a systematic analysis of anti-black racism in Arendt's work.
Hannah Arendt and the Specter of Totalitarianism
by Marilyn LafayThis work positions Arendt as a political writer attempting to find a way in which humanity, poised between the Holocaust and the atom bomb, might reclaim its position as the creators of a world fit for human habitation.
Hannah Arendt: Challenges of Plurality (Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences #10)
by Maria Robaszkiewicz Tobias MatznerThis volume explores challenges posed by plurality, as understood by Hannah Arendt, but also the opportunities it offers. It is an interdisciplinary collection of chapters, including contributions from different traditions of philosophy, political science, and history. The book offers novel perspectives on central issues in research on Arendt, reconfiguring the existing interpretations and reinforcing the line of interpretation illuminating the phenomenological facets of Arendt’s theory. The authors of the contributions to this volume decisively put the notion of plurality in the center of the collected interpretations, pointing out that plurality in its dialectic form of commonality, and difference is not only, as assumed by default, one of the most important notions in Arendt’s theory, but the very central one. At the same time, plurality is a central issue in many current debates, from populism and hate speech to migration and privacy. This collection therefore connects the theoretical advancements regarding Arendt and other political thinkers with some of the most pressing contemporary issues. This book will be of interest to scholars and advanced students from philosophy, political theory and related fields studying contemporary challenges of plurality as well as scholars interested in the work of Hannah Arendt.
Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism, and the Social Sciences
by Peter BaehrBaehr (social theory, Lingman U. , Hong Kong) critically reviews the debates between Hannah Arendt and her critics in the social sciences over her theory of totalitarianism and her critique of social science as being fundamentally unable to account for totalitarianism. Specifically, he examines the encounters between: Arendt and David Riesman over the limits of totalitarianism, Arendt and Raymond Aron over his idea that totalitarianism could be explained as an amplification of revolutionary ideology and violence, and Arendt and Jules Monnerot about the nature of "political religion. " He also addresses some of the theoretical implications of these debates for thinking about Islamic fundamentalism. Annotation ©2010 Book News, Inc. , Portland, OR (booknews. com)
Hannah Arendt’s Aesthetic Politics: Freedom and the Beautiful
by Jim JosefsonWe face a crisis of public reason. Our quest for a politics that is free, moral and rational has, somehow, made it hard for us to move, to change our positions, to visit places and perspectives that are not our own, and to embrace reality. This book addresses this crisis with a model of public reason based in a new aesthetic reading of Hannah Arendt’s political theory. It begins by telling the story of Arendt’s engagement with the Augenblicke of Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, Jaspers, Heidegger, Kafka and Benjamin, in order to identify her own aesthetic Moment. Josefson then explicates this Moment, what he calls the freedom of the beautiful, as a third face of freedom on par with Arendt’s familiar freedoms of action and the life of the mind. He shows how this freedom, rooted in Jaspers’s phenomenology and a non-metaphysical reading of Kant, serves to redress the world-alienation that was a uniting theme across Arendt’s works. Ultimately, this volume aims to challenge orthodox accounts of Arendtian politics, presenting Arendt’s aesthetic politics as a radically new model of republicanism and as an alternative to political liberal, deliberative and agonistic models of public reason.
Hannah Arendt's Theory of Political Action
by Trevor TchirThis book presents an account of Hannah Arendt's performative and non-sovereign theory of freedom and political action, with special focus on action's disclosure of the unique 'who' of each agent. It aims to illuminate Arendt's critique of sovereign rule, totalitarianism, and world-alienation, her defense of a distinct political sphere for engaged citizen action and judgment, her conception of the 'right to have rights,' and her rejection of teleological philosophies of history. Arendt proposes that in modern, pluralistic, secular public spheres, no one metaphysical or religious idea can authoritatively validate political actions or opinions absolutely. At the same time, she sees action and thinking as revealing an inescapable existential illusion of a divine element in human beings, a notion represented well by the 'daimon' metaphor that appears in Arendt's own work and in key works by Plato, Heidegger, Jaspers, and Kant, with which she engages. While providing a post-metaphysical theory of action and judgment, Arendt performs the fact that many of the legitimating concepts of contemporary secular politics retain a residual vocabulary of transcendence. This book will be of interest not only to Arendt scholars, but also to students of identity politics, the critique of sovereignty, international political theory, political theology, and the philosophy of history.
Hannah's Children: The Women Quietly Defying the Birth Dearth
by Catherine PakalukA portrait of America's most interesting yet overlooked women.In the midst of a historic "birth dearth," why do some 5 percent of American women choose to defy the demographic norm by bearing five or more children? Hannah&’s Children is a compelling portrait of these overlooked but fascinating mothers who, like the biblical Hannah, see their children as their purpose, their contribution, and their greatest blessing. The social scientist Catherine Pakaluk, herself the mother of eight, traveled across the United States and interviewed fifty-five college-educated women who were raising five or more children. Through open-ended questions, she sought to understand who these women are, why and when they chose to have a large family, and what this choice means for them, their families, and the nation. Hannah&’s Children is more than interesting stories of extraordinary women. It presents information that is urgently relevant for the future of American prosperity. Many countries have experimented with aggressively pro-natalist public policies, and all of them have failed. Pakaluk finds that the quantitative methods to which the social sciences limit themselves overlook important questions of meaning and identity in their inquiries into fertility rates. Her book is a pathbreaking foray into questions of purpose, religion, transcendence, healing, and growth—questions that ought to inform economic inquiry in the future.
Hannibal Lecter and Philosophy
by Joseph WestfallSixteen philosophers come at Hannibal the way he comes at his victims-from unexpected angles and with plenty of surprises thrown in. <P><P> Hannibal is a revolting monster, and yet a monster with whom we identify because of his intelligence, artistry, and personal magnetism. The chapters in this book pose many questions-and offer intriguing answers-about the enigma of Hannibal Lecter. What does the the relationship between Hannibal and those who know him-particularly FBI investigator Will Graham-tell us about the nature of friendship and Hannibal's capacity for friendship? Does Hannibal confer benefits on society by eliminating people who don't live up to his high aesthetic standards? Can upsetting experiences in early childhood turn you into a serial killer? Why are we enthralled by someone who exercises god-like control over situations and people? Does it make any difference morally that a killer eats his victims? Can a murder be a work of art? Several chapters look at the mind of this accomplished killer, psychiatrist, and gourmet cook. Is he a sociopath or a psychopath, or are these the same: Is he lacking in empathy: Apparently not, since he has a quick understanding of what other people think and feel. Maybe what he lacks is a conscience.
Hans Blumenberg: Myth And Significance In Modern Politics (Global Political Thinkers Ser.)
by Xander KirkeThis book investigates the writings of German intellectual historian and philosopher Hans Blumenberg. While Blumenberg was not an explicitly political thinker and remains relatively under-explored in Anglophone academia, this project demonstrates that his work makes a valuable contribution to political science. The author considers the intellectual contributions Blumenberg makes to a variety of themes focusing primarily on myth. Rather than seeing myths in a pejorative sense, as primitive modes of thought that have been overcome, Blumenberg reveals that myths are crucial to dealing with the existential anxieties we face. When we trace his thought as it developed throughout his life, we find a rich source of philosophical insights that could enhance our understandings of politics today.
Hans Blumenberg's History and Philosophy of Science (Studies in History and Philosophy of Science #63)
by Alberto Fragio Josefa Ros Velasco Martina Philippi Cornelius BorckThis book highlights and develops a hitherto neglected area of Hans Blumenberg's contributions, i.e., history and philosophy of science. It covers both Blumenberg’s works on the history of ideas and conceptual change, as well as his studies on transformative periods and his intellectual history of technology. Hans Blumenberg (1920-1996) was one of the leading German philosophers after the Second World War, bridging from the continental tradition of philosophy, conceptual history and metaphorology. This volume, though, explores the methodological instruments that he developed and how we may use them to do history and philosophy of science. In doing so it opens up a new field of research and provides insight into further developing a continental history and philosophy of science, making this book of great interest to both historians and philosophers alike.
Hans-Georg Gadamer
by Jon NixonThis book provides an introduction to Hans-Georg Gadamer's thinking and shows how it might inform our own thinking about education as a lifelong process of engaging with one another and with the wider world. He insisted on the supreme importance of prior learning, but also on the unpredictability of human understanding and on the possibility of new and unforeseeable beginnings. Having lived through the catastrophe of two world wars, he became an important voice in the debate on the future of a reunified Germany and the role of the university in shaping the values and outlook of the new Europe. His work is of immense significance for all those involved in the education of future generations. 'In Gadamer: The Hermeutical Imagination, Jon Nixon has pulled off quite a feat. In his customary lucid, accessible and dialogical style, we are treated to a masterly tour that both opens the complex thinking of Hans-Georg Gadamer and draws out its implications for our understanding of education. In the process, a strong critique emerges of contemporary instrumental approaches to education. Many will assuredly gain much from this enjoyable text, both those interested in Gadamer as such and those working in the philosophy of education. ' Ronald Barnett, Emeritus Professor of Higher Education, UCL Institute of Education, UK 'This book simultaneously invites the reader to engage with the transformative potential of education and provokes the reader to imagine an educational landscape that values freedom, democracy and authenticity. Jon Nixon skilfully and eloquently draws the reader into the philosophies, life and legacy of Hans-Goerg Gadamer, a key thinker of the 20th century. Meticulously researched, this original study offers a biographical insight as well as critical commentary on Gadamer's contribution to wider educational debates. An impressive contribution to the field. ' Tanya Fitzgerald, Professor of History of Education, La Trobe University, Australia 'Gadamer: The Hermeneutical Imagination provides an excellent introduction to Gadamer's key ideas. Jon Nixon draws his readers into a conversation with Gadamer, inviting them to imagine the possibility of applying Gadamer's hermeneutical philosophy to their own educational practice. It is essential reading for all those who have an interest in - and commitment to - the future of education. ' Feng Su, Senior Lecturer in Education, Liverpool Hope University, UK
Hans J. Morgenthau und die Twenty Years‘ Crisis: Das realistische Denken eines Emigranten im Lichte seines deutschen Erfahrungshintergrundes
by Alexander ReichweinAlexander Reichwein stellt in diesem Buch die realistische Theorie Hans J. Morgenthaus in den Kontext der deutschen Geschichte. Dabei vertritt er die These eines sinnstiftenden Zusammenhangs zwischen der Sozialisation und dem Denken des in Frankfurt promovierten Völkerrechtlers und späteren Politikwissenschaftlers. Reichwein argumentiert, dass erst das Wissen um Morgenthaus soziales und intellektuelles Umfeld, seinen persönlichen und akademischen Werdegang und die politischen Ereignisse in Europa in den Zwischenkriegsjahren den Schlüssel zum Verständnis seines Weltbildes bieten, das sich nicht auf ein affirmatives Verständnis von Macht reduzieren lässt. Morgenthaus Denken offenbart liberale Grundüberzeugungen, einen normativen Kern und Lehren aus der Vergangenheit, die in seiner Kritik an der US-Außenpolitik sowie in seinen Arbeiten zur Demokratie in Amerika zum Ausdruck kommen. Und die sich wie eine Warnung vor einer kriegerischen Außenpolitik, Nationalismus und einem zweiten Weimar lesen lassen.
Hans Jonas: The Early Years (Routledge Jewish Studies Series)
by Daniel M. Herskowitz Elad Lapidot Christian WieseThis book offers new perspectives on the early and formative years of the German-Jewish philosopher Hans Jonas, through innovative studies of his German and Hebrew work in pre-war Germany and Palestine.Covering all facets of Jonas’s early work, the book brings together leading scholars to explore key conceptual, historical, genealogical, and biographical contexts. Some of the main topics examined include his deep intellectual history of Western thought and its origins in late antiquity through the category of Gnosis, the intellectual influence of Heidegger, Bultmann, Husserl, and Spengler, his relation to Christian theology, and his interest in Judaism and Zionism. Existing research on his early work is not only limited in size but also often methodologically deficient, for it is common to interpret the early in light of the late and as teleologically leading to it. By introducing new materials and addressing new questions, this book offers innovative perspectives on Jonas’s intellectual project as a whole and provides a historical and conceptual foundation for further scholarly explorations of his oeuvre.Providing fresh insights into the work of one of the twentieth century’s most influential philosophers, the book will appeal to students and researchers working in intellectual history, Jewish studies, and religion.
Hans Jonas: Etappen seines Denkwegs (essentials)
by Robert TheisDieses essential widmet sich dem Werk des Philosophen Hans Jonas und zwar aus dem Blickwinkel der Entwicklung seines Denkens. Die frühen Studien über die spätantike Gnosis bilden den Ausgangspunkt. Hier stößt Jonas auf ein Thema, das er in seinem gesamten späteren Werk kritisch diskutiert, nämlich das des weltfeindlichen Dualismus. In den ab den 1940er-Jahren entworfenen Studien zu einer philosophischen Biologie wird der Versuch unternommen, den Menschen in seiner leib-geistigen Verfasstheit bis hin zu seinen höchsten symbolischen Ausdrucksformen aus dem Prozess der gesamten Evolution heraus zu deuten und damit implizit die Weltfeindlichkeit der Gnosis zu widerlegen. In seiner Ethik der Verantwortung, die er in dem 1979 veröffentlichten berühmten Prinzip Verantwortung systematisch vorträgt, findet sich gleichsam die ethische Seite der Überwindung der Gnosis, nämlich, dass der Mensch Verantwortung für eine Welt zu übernehmen habe, in der auch zukünftige Generationen menschenwürdig leben können. In seinen letzten metaphysisch-theologischen Vermutungen dann wird die Problematik der Verantwortung mit Blick auf einen in der Schöpfung selber werdenden Gott hin thematisiert.
Hans Jonas's Ethic of Responsibility: From Ontology to Ecology (SUNY series in Environmental Philosophy and Ethics)
by Theresa MorrisDespite his tremendous impact on the German Green Party and the influence of his work on contemporary debates about stem cell research in the United States, Hans Jonas's (1903–1993) philosophical contributions have remained partially obscured. In particular, the ontological grounding he gives his ethics, based on a phenomenological engagement with biology to bridge the "is-ought" gap, has not been fully appreciated. Theresa Morris provides a comprehensive overview and analysis of Jonas's philosophy that reveals the thread that runs through all of his thought, including his work on the philosophy of biology, ethics, the philosophy of technology, and bioethics. She places Jonas's philosophy in context, comparing his ideas to those of other ethical and environmental philosophers and demonstrating the relevance of his thought for our current ethical and environmental problems. Crafting strong supporting arguments for Jonas's insightful view of ethics as a matter of both reason and emotion, Morris convincingly lays out his account of the basis of our responsibilities not only to the biosphere but also to current and future generations of beings.
Hans Kelsen in America - Selective Affinities and the Mysteries of Academic Influence
by D.A. Jeremy TelmanThis volume explores the reasons for Hans Kelsen'slack of influence in the United States and proposes ways in which Kelsen'sapproach to law, philosophy, and political, democratic, and internationalrelations theory could be relevant to current debates within the U. S. academyin those areas. Along the way, the volume examines Kelsen's relationship andoften hidden influences on other members of the mid-century Central Europeanémigré community whose work helped shape twentieth-century social science in theUnited States. The book includes majorcontributions to the history of ideas and to the sociology of the professionsin the U. S. academy in the twentieth century. Each section of the volumeexplores a different aspect of the puzzle of the neglect of Kelsen's work invarious disciplinary and national settings. Part I provides reconstructions of Kelsen's legal theory and defendsthat theory against negative assessments in Anglo-American jurisprudence. Part II focuses both on Kelsen's theoreticalviews on international law and his practical involvement in the post-wardevelopment of international criminal law. Part III addresses Kelsen's theories ofdemocracy and justice while placing him in dialogue with other majortwentieth-century thinkers, including two fellow émigré scholars, Leo Straussand Albert Ehrenzweig. Part IV explores Kelsen's intellectual legacies throughEuropean and American perspectives on the interaction of Kelsen's theoreticalapproach to law and national legal traditions in the United States and Germany. Each contribution features a particularapplications of Kelsen's approach to doctrinal and interpretive issuescurrently of interest in the legal academy. The volume concludes with two chapters on the nature of Kelsen's legaltheory as an instance of modernism.
Hans Kelsen's Normativism (Elements in Philosophy of Law)
by Carsten HeidemannHans Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law is the most prominent example of legal normativism. This text traces its origins and its genesis. In philosophy, normativism started with Hume's distinction between Is- and Ought-propositions. Kant distinguished practical from theoretical judgments, while resting even the latter on normativity. Following him, Lotze and the Baden neo-Kantians instrumentalized normativism to secure a sphere of knowledge which is not subject to the natural sciences. Even in his first major text, Kelsen claims that law is solely a matter of Ought or normativity. In the second phase of his writings, he places himself into the neo-Kantian tradition, holding legal norms to be Ought-judgments of legal science. In the third phase, he advocates a barely coherent naive normative realism. In the fourth phase, he supplements the realist view with a strict will-theory of norms, coupled with set-pieces from linguistic philosophy; classical normativism is more or less dismantled.