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Interdisciplinary Investigations into the Lvov-Warsaw School (History of Analytic Philosophy)
by Jan Woleński Anna Drabarek Mateusz M. RadzkiThis book presents the heritage of the Lvov-Warsaw School from both the historical and the philosophical perspective. The historical view focuses on the beginnings and the dramatic end of the School brought about by the outbreak of World War II. The philosophical view, on the other hand, encompasses a broad spectrum of issues, including logical, epistemological, axiological, and psychological problems, revealing the interdisciplinary nature of studies carried out by Kazimierz Twardowski and his students.With thirteen diverse and original essays this volume is split into three parts: History, Culture and Axiology; Psychology; and Logic and Methodology. Exploring not only the history of philosophy represented by the Lvov-Warsaw school, the book also reflects on the condition of contemporary philosophy from the perspective of concepts developed by its representatives. Furthermore, the studies presented in this book delve into problems of contemporary science and its distinctive interdisciplinary character. This volume is, therefore, not only a collection of analyses of the Lvov-Warsaw School philosophy, but also an investigation into the interdisciplinarity of science and philosophy itself.
Interdisciplinary Pedagogy for STEM
by Reneta D. LansiquotThis book focuses on constructivist theory and collaborative interdisciplinary studies, showing how constructivist theory complements interdisciplinary studies. Constructivist theory stresses how learners construct new ideas and concepts, while the interdisciplinary method requires that learners approach complex problems from multiple perspectives. The author uses the New York City College of Technology as a model to demonstrate how learning can be embedded in complex, realistic, and relevant environments. As a result, students learn to consider significant issues from a variety of viewpoints and thus negotiate their social landscape. In approaching problems that they recognize as meaningful, they take ownership of their learning and become increasingly self-aware. This scholarly book makes a theoretical contribution to its field while also offering a practical, real world example of how to successfully integrate a curriculum.
Interdisciplinary Perspectives on COVID-19 and the Caribbean, Volume 2: Society, Education and Human Behaviour
by Sherma Roberts Halimah A. F. DeShong Wendy C. Grenade Dwayne DevonishCaribbean countries have had to navigate multiple crises, which have tested their collective resolve through time. In this regard, the region’s landscape has been shaped by an interplay of vulnerability and resilience which has brought to the fore possibilities and contradictions. It is within this context that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic must be considered. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on COVID-19 and the Caribbean, Volume 2: Society, Education and Human Behaviour provides a comprehensive, multi- and interdisciplinary assessment of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, using the Caribbean as the site of enquiry. The edited collection mobilises critical perspectives brought to bear on research produced within and beyond the boundaries and boundedness of conventional academic disciplinary divides, in response to the multi-dimensional crises of our time. This volume is divided into four (4) parts consisting of twenty-three (23) chapters and weaves together four broad thematic strands: COVID-19 and Caribbean Society; COVID-19 Religion and Rights; Psycho-social Impacts of COVID-19; and Education, Innovation, and Technology. Authors working within and across the human, social, physical and life sciences consider the myriad effects of the health crisis in the region, interrogating these experiences from the granular to macro level, utilising inter and multidisciplinary lenses. Collectively, the chapters which constitute Volume II expose the fault lines in Caribbean societies, which are deeply rooted in the region’s history and delineate the precise ways in which the pandemic has transformed lives and livelihoods in the region. The culmination of this collection offers a reimagining of our Caribbean contemporary futures in the hope of finding home-grown solutions, avenues and possibilities.
Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Consciousness and the Self
by Anindya Sinha Sangeetha Menon B. V. SreekantanThis book brings together ancient spiritual wisdom and modern science and philosophy to address age-old questions regarding our existence, free will and the nature of conscious awareness. Stuart Hameroff MD Professor, Anesthesiology and Psychology, and Director, Center for Consciousness Studies The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona This book presents a rich, broad-ranging overview of contemporary research and scholarship into consciousness and the self. . . . It is . . . to their credit that the editors have assembled a highly stimulating set of scholars whose expertise cover all the relevant areas. I strongly recommend the book to anyone with an interest in understanding the directions in which contemporary thinking about the nature of consciousness is headed. B. Les Lancaster Emeritus Professor of Transpersonal Psychology Liverpool John Moores University, UK This volume is a collection of 23 essays that contribute to the emerging discipline of consciousness studies with particular focus on the concept of the self. The essays together argue that to understand consciousness is to understand the self that beholds consciousness. Two broad issues are addressed in the volume: the place of the self in the lives of humans and nonhuman primates; and the interrelations between the self and consciousness, which contribute to the understanding of cognitive functions, awareness, free will, nature of reality, and the complex experiential and behavioural attributes of consciousness. The book presents cutting-edge and original work from well-known authors and scholars of philosophy, psychiatry, behavioural sciences and physics. This is a pioneering attempt to present to the reader multiple ways of conceptualizing and thus understanding the relation between consciousness and self in a nuanced manner.
Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Mortality and its Timings: When is Death? (Palgrave Historical Studies in the Criminal Corpse and its Afterlife)
by Shane MccorristineThis book is open access under a CC BY 4.0 license.This volume provides a series of illuminating perspectives on the timings of death, through in-depth studies of Shakespearean tragedy, criminal execution, embalming practices, fears of premature burial, rumours of Adolf Hitler’s survival, and the legal concept of brain death. In doing so, it explores a number of questions, including: how do we know if someone is dead or not? What do people experience at the moment when they die? Is death simply a biological event that comes about in temporal stages of decomposition, or is it a social event defined through cultures, practices, and commemorations? In other words, when exactly is death? Taken together, these contributions explore how death emerges in a series of stages that are uncertain, paradoxical, and socially contested.
Interdisciplinary Value Theory
by Steffen SteinertThis book offers an interdisciplinary introduction to value theory. It reviews how researchers in four academic disciplines – psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy – understand value and value change. It offers an introduction for researchers in these disciplines about how other disciplines define, theorize, and investigate value(s) to foster interdisciplinary communication.The book identifies and summarizes similarities and differences of value theory between the academic disciplines and highlights promising areas where each discipline can learn from the others.
Interdisciplinary and Social Nature of Engineering Practices: Philosophy, Examples and Approaches (Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics #61)
by Paulo Fernando Ribeiro Antonio Carlos Zambroni de Souza Maarten J. VerkerkThis book covers practical and philosophical aspects of Engineering, paying special attention to the social impacts of emerging technologies. Some fundamentals of philosophy of technology are introduced followed by social, economic, and environmental discussion and implications in different disciplines. Each chapter provides insights on the responsibilities involved in the design of engineering projects. The examples presented combine concepts about the impacts of Engineering in society at the same time that incorporates new technological models, yielding an innovative approach about the topics.
Interdisziplinäre Anthropologie: Jahrbuch 8/2020: Tod & Sterben (Interdisziplinäre Anthropologie)
by Matthias Herrgen Gerald HartungDas Jahrbuch nimmt mit „Tod und Sterben“ ein zentrales Thema des anthropologischen Diskurses auf: Die Abkehr von religiösen Weltdeutungen und die zunehmende Individualisierung und Flexibilisierung vieler Lebensbereiche prägen nicht nur gesellschaftliche Einstellungen zum Tod und zum Sterben; auch die konkreten Praxen, wie heute gestorben und wie der Toten gedacht wird, haben sich gewandelt und zu einer Pluralisierung von Todesbildern geführt. Wo vormals tradierte Riten den Umgang mit Sterben und Tod strukturierten, stehen den Einzelnen gegenwärtig unterschiedlichste Formen der „Gestaltung“ des (eigenen) Sterbens, der Bestattung und des Andenkens zur Wahl. Der Diskurs mit dem Leitartikel „Tod und Sterben. Anthropologisch-praktische Überlegungen“ eröffnet eine Debatte, die facettenreich Beiträge zu einer modernen Thanatologie zusammenträgt. Die Kommentare & Replik zeigen sehr eindringlich den pragmatistischen Charakter des interdisziplinären Projektes des Jahrbuchs, das mit einer Position zum Verhältnis von Anthropologie und Ethik einen normativen Beitrag zum Schwerpunkthema leistet.
Interests in Abortion: A New Perspective on Foetal Potential and the Abortion Debate (Routledge Revivals)
by Tracie MartinThis title was first published 2000: Ever since Michael Tooley published his article on "Abortion and Infanticide" in 1972, the abortion debate has revolved around questions such as: "What is a person?"; "What is it that gives persons the right to life?"; and "Is it wrong to kill potential persons?" This study defends a position that accepts elements from both the liberal and conservative tradition. Following Tooley, Tracie Martin understands personhood in terms of psychological states and agrees that early foetuses who lack the relevant mental states are not persons. While this might seem a victory for the liberal tradition, Martin then goes on to provide an empirically-based argument for the view that by 24-weeks gestation foetuses have acquired the relevant characteristics that provide strong grounds for thinking that it is directly wrong to kill such foetuses.
Interface Fantasy: A Lacanian Cyborg Ontology (Short Circuits)
by Andre NusselderBehind our computer screens we are all cyborgs: through fantasy we can understand our involvement in virtual worlds.Cyberspace is first and foremost a mental space. Therefore we need to take a psychological approach to understand our experiences in it. In Interface Fantasy, André Nusselder uses the core psychoanalytic notion of fantasy to examine our relationship to computers and digital technology. Lacanian psychoanalysis considers fantasy to be an indispensable “screen” for our interaction with the outside world; Nusselder argues that, at the mental level, computer screens and other human-computer interfaces incorporate this function of fantasy: they mediate the real and the virtual. Interface Fantasy illuminates our attachment to new media: why we love our devices; why we are fascinated by the images on their screens; and how it is possible that virtual images can provide physical pleasure. Nusselder puts such phenomena as avatars, role playing, cybersex, computer psychotherapy, and Internet addiction in the context of established psychoanalytic theory. The virtual identities we assume in virtual worlds, exemplified best by avatars consisting of both realistic and symbolic self-representations, illustrate the three orders that Lacan uses to analyze human reality: the imaginary, the symbolic, and the real. Nusselder analyzes our most intimate involvement with information technology—the almost invisible, affective aspects of technology that have the greatest impact on our lives. Interface Fantasy lays the foundation for a new way of thinking that acknowledges the pivotal role of the screen in the current world of information. And it gives an intelligible overview of basic Lacanian principles (including fantasy, language, the virtual, the real, embodiment, and enjoyment) that shows their enormous relevance for understanding the current state of media technology.
Interfaces between Science and Society
by Ângela Guimarães Pereira Sofia Guedes Vaz Sylvia TognettiThe project of science has been to provide answers to questions about the world and how it works. Often, this lofty role has been characterised by a narrow and dogmatic scientific training, an unwillingness to communicate to differing stakeholder needs, a refusal to accept and to manage uncertainty, complexity and value commitments, and the reduction of knowledge assessment to colleague peer review on narrowly technical issues. Times have changed. As the world faces increasingly disparate challenges, science is subjected to increasingly vehement demands from a society calling for transparency, openness and public participation in science policy. Science is going through an evolutionary process. Perhaps the most painful process it has ever encountered. Research on the interfaces between science and society is a burgeoning area. A new conception of knowledge now appears to be emerging, based on the awareness of complexity, uncertainty and a plurality of legitimate perspectives and interests. Democracy is extending into the previously quite exclusive scientific realm, and science must now submit to public scrutiny and participation in the governance of knowledge. This book provides much-needed reflections on the methods and tools for knowledge quality assurance, particularly on its inputs to extended policy and decision-making processes. The overall aim is to improve the relationship between science and society. The discussion involves six themes: communicating between plural perspectives; accepting and learning how to manage uncertainty, complexity and value commitments; acknowledging new conceptions of knowledge; implementing transparency, openness and participation in science policy; valuing community-based research; and exploring how new ICT can support inclusive governance. Taken together, these themes provide both a framework and vision on how to conceive, discuss and evaluate the changes that are occurring. The chapters cover theory, practice, approaches, experiences, ideas and suggestions for a move beyond "talking the talk" to "walking the walk". Science and policy interfaces are dynamic processes needing to permanently redefine themselves and their roles. This book contributes to the enrichment and deepening of our understanding of these important new trends in the social relations of science, which are fundamental to our understanding of the prospects for further progress. The book will be essential reading for scientists, policy-makers, managers and the public.
Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture
by Walter J. OngIn Interfaces of the World, Walter J. Ong explores the effects on consciousness of the word as it moves through oral to written to print and electronic culture.
Interfaith Engagement Beyond the Divide: Approaches, Experiences, and Practices
by Adis Duderija Johannes M. Luetz Denise A. AustinThis book features reflections by scholars and practitioners from diverse religious traditions. It posits that the global challenges facing humanity today can only be mastered if humans from diverse faith traditions can meaningfully collaborate in support of human rights, reconciliation, sustainability, justice, and peace. Seeking to redress common distortions of religious mis- and dis-information, the book aims to construct interreligious common ground ‘beyond the divide’.Organised into three main sections, the book features sixteen conceptual, empirical, and practice-informed chapters that explore spirituality across faiths and cultures. Chapter 1 delineates the state of the art in relation to interfaith engagement, Chapters 2–8 advance theoretical research, Chapters 9–12 discuss empirical perspectives, and Chapters 13–16 showcase field projects and recount stories and lived experiences.Comprising works by scholars, professionals, and practitioners from around the globe, Interfaith Engagement Beyond the Divide: Approaches, Experiences, and Practices is an interdisciplinary publication on interreligious thought and engagement:Assembles a curated collection of chapters from numerous countries and diverse religious traditions;Addresses interfaith scholarship and praxis from a range of interdisciplinary perspectives;Comprises interfaith dialogue and collaborative research involving authors of different faiths;Envisions prospects for peace, interreligious harmony in diversity, and a world that may be equitably and enduringly shared.The appraisal of present and future challenges and opportunities, framed within a context of public policy and praxis, makes this interdisciplinary publication a useful tool for teaching, research, and policy development. Chapter 16 is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.
Intergenerational Challenges and Climate Justice: Setting the Scope of Our Obligations (Routledge Studies in Environmental Justice)
by Livia Ester LuzzattoClimate change poses questions of intergenerational justice, but some of its features make it difficult to determine whether we have obligations of climate justice to future generations. This book offers a novel argument, justifying the present generation’s obligations to future people. Livia Luzzatto shows that we have intergenerational obligations because many of our actions are based on presuppositions about future people. When agents engage in such intergenerational actions, they acquire an obligation to also recognize those future people as agents within their principles of justice, and with that a duty to respect their agency and autonomy. Intergenerational Challenges and Climate Justice also offers a way to circumvent the problems of non-identity and non-existence. Its approach overcomes the intergenerational challenges of climate change by meeting three necessary criteria: providing ways to cope with uncertainty, dealing with the complexity of climate change, and including future people for their own sake. The author meets these criteria by adopting an action-centered methodology that grounds our obligations of justice on the presuppositions of activity. This robust framework can be used to justify increased climate action and the greater inclusion of future-oriented policies in current decision making. This book will be of great interest to academics and students concerned with the issues of climate and intergenerational justice.
Intergenerational Justice: Rights and Responsibilities in an Intergenerational Polity (Routledge Studies in Contemporary Philosophy)
by Janna ThompsonIn this timely study, Thompson presents a theory of intergenerational justice that gives citizens duties to past and future generations, showing why people can make legitimate demands of their successors and explaining what relationships between contemporary generations count as fair. What connects these various responsibilities and entitlements is a view about individual interests that both argues that individuals are motivated by intergenerational concerns, and that a polity that appropriately recognizes these interests must support and accept intergenerational responsibilities. The book ranges over the philosophical, ethical, political and environmental questions raised by intergenerational issues: how we can have duties to non-existent people, whether we can wrong the dead or be held responsible for what they did, what sacrifices we should make for our successors, and whether we have duties to people of the remote future. Encompassing the ethical problems created by demographic change, the ethical issues of population control and intergenerational implications of new technologies for creating people, this book will be of interest to those studying philosophy, politics, legal theory, and environmental studies.
Interiority and Law: Bahya ibn Paquda and the Concept of Inner Commandments (Stanford Studies in Jewish Mysticism)
by Omer MichaelisInteriority and Law presents a groundbreaking reassessment of a medieval Jewish classic, Baḥya ibn Paquda's Guide to the Duties of the Hearts. Michaelis reads this work anew as a revolutionary intervention in Jewish law, or halakha. Overturning perceptions of Baḥya as the shaper of an ethical-religious form of life that exceeds halakha, Michaelis offers a pioneering historical and conceptual analysis of the category of "inner commandments" developed by Baḥya. Interiority and Law reveals that Baḥya's main effort revolved around establishing a new legal formation—namely, the "duties of the hearts"—which would deal entirely with human interiority. Michaelis takes up the implications of Baḥya's radical innovation, examining his unique mystical model of proximity to God, which he based on an increasingly growing fulfillment of the inner commandments. With an integrative approach that puts Baḥya in dialogue with other medieval Muslim and Jewish religious thinkers, this work offers a fresh perspective on our understanding of the interconnectedness of the dynamic, neighboring religious traditions of Judaism and Islam. Contributing to conversations in the history of religion, Jewish studies, and medieval studies on interiority and mysticism, this book reveals Baḥya as a revolutionary and demanding thinker of Jewish law.
Interkulturelle Universitäten und alternative Wissenskonstruktion: Lateinamerikanische Perspektiven
by Anna MeiserDie seit rund zwanzig Jahren in ganz Lateinamerika gegründeten „Interkulturellen Universitäten“ erheben gegenüber den Hochschulen euroamerikanischer Tradition den Anspruch einer „alternativen“ Forschung und Lehre. Die Arbeit analysiert, wie solche Universitäten lokale und indigene Wissenstraditionen in Dialog mit „westlichen“ Wissenschaftsdiskursen zu bringen und damit Wissen interkulturell zu konstruieren suchen. Sie zeigt dabei Wege zu einer Dekolonialisierung von Wissenschaft und Hochschulbildung auf, reflektiert die ethnologische Fachtradition und deren methodisches Arbeiten und diskutiert das allgemeine Potential einer Interkulturalisierung von Wissenschaft. Grundlage dieser Analyse sind umfassende Feldforschungen vor allem in Ecuador und Mexiko.
Internal Displacement: Conceptualization and its Consequences (Global Institutions)
by Thomas G. Weiss David A. KornThis new volume traces the normative, legal, institutional, and political responses to the challenges of assisting and protecting internally displaced persons (IDPs). The crisis of IDPs was first confronted in the 1980s, and the problems of those suffering from this type of forced migration has grown continually since then. Drawing on official and confidential documents as well as interviews with leading personalities, Internal Displacement provides an unparalleled analysis of this important issue and includes: an exploration of the phenomenon of internal displacement and of policy research about it a review of efforts to increase awareness about the plight of IDPs and the development of a legal framework to protect them a 'behind-the-scenes' look at the creation and evolution of the mandate of the Representative of the Secretary-General on IDPs a variety of case studies illustrating the difficulties in overcoming the operational shortcomings within the UN system a foreword by former UN high commissioner for refugees, Sadako Ogata. Internal Displacement will appeal to students and scholars with interests in war and peace, forced migration, human rights and global governance.
Internalism and Epistemology: The Architecture of Reason (Routledge Studies in Contemporary Philosophy)
by Timothy McGrew Lydia McGrewThis book is a sustained defence of traditional internalist epistemology. The aim is threefold: to address some key criticisms of internalism and show that they do not hit their mark, to articulate a detailed version of a central objection to externalism, and to illustrate how a consistent internalism can meet the charge that it fares no better in the face of this objection than does externalism itself. This original work will be recommended reading for scholars with an interest in epistemology.
Internalist Virtue Epistemology: A Stoic Model
by Benjamin W. McCrawThis monograph works at the intersection of two of the most popular and growing fields in epistemology: epistemic normativity or value and virtue epistemology. By challenging two hitherto un- or under-explored sets of assumptions—epistemological orthodoxies—operative in those fields and, by rejecting them, the book develops novel approaches to current theories of epistemic value and virtue. The book argues that what is needed is an internalist (i.e. non-externalist) mode of epistemic virtue. To accomplish this, it draws on Stoic moral theory, whereby the deployment of virtue—no matter whether one has any &‘external&’ success—suffices for completely successful action.
International Animal Research Regulations: Workshop Summary
by Diana E. PankevichAnimals are widely used in neuroscience research to explore biological mechanisms of nervous system function, to identify the genetic basis of disease states, and to provide models of human disorders and diseases for the development of new treatments. To ensure the humane care and use of animals, numerous laws, policies, and regulations are in place governing the use of animals in research, and certain animal regulations have implications specific to neuroscience research. To consider animal research regulations from a global perspective, the IOM Forum on Neuroscience and Nervous System Disorders, in collaboration with the National Research Council and the Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, held a workshop in Buckinghamshire, UK, July 26-27, 2011. The workshop brought together neuroscientists, legal scholars, administrators, and other key stakeholders to discuss current and emerging trends in animal regulations as they apply to the neurosciences. This document summarizes the workshop.
International Comparisons in Learning and Education: Eliasian Perspectives (Palgrave Studies on Norbert Elias)
by Norman GabrielThis Open Access edited volume addresses the important role of education in society through the lens of theoretical concepts developed by Norbert Elias. This book sets out to challenge dominant perspectives within the sociology of education by reorientating traditional debates about socialisation, childhood, early years education, care, schooling and the curriculum, focusing on the relational learning processes that lie at the heart of pedagogic relationships between parents, teachers, children and peers. It also offers an innovative perspective on some of the key debates in childhood studies, bringing together and relating the different aspects of childhood through a generational lens. Authors from different countries follow young children as they grow up and learn how to become civilized in institutions in contemporary society, discussing how from one generation to the next they learn from adults and their peers an enormous social fund of knowledge about their world.
International Conference on Oriental Thinking and Fuzzy Logic
by Bing-Yuan Cao Zeng-Liang Liu Yu-Bin Zhong Pei-Zhuang WangThis proceedings book presents edited results of the eighth International Conference on Fuzzy Information and Engineering (ICFIE'2015) and on Oriental Thinking and Fuzzy Logic, in August 17-20, 2015, in Dalian, China. The book contains 65 high-quality papers and is divided into six main parts: "Fuzzy Information Processing", "Fuzzy Engineering", "Internet and Big Data Applications", "Factor Space and Factorial Neural Networks", "Information Granulation and Granular Computing" as well as "Extenics and Innovation Methods".
International Critical Pedagogy Reader
by Antonia Darder Peter Mayo João Paraskeva<p>Carefully curated to highlight research from more than twenty countries, the International Critical Pedagogy Reader introduces the ways the educational phenomenon that is critical pedagogy are being reinvented and reframed around the world. A collection of essays from both historical and contemporary thinkers coupled with original essays, introduce this school of thought and approach it from a wide variety of cultural, social, and political perspectives. <p>Academics from South America, Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and North America describe critical pedagogy’s political, ideological, and intellectual foundations, tracing its international evolution and unveiling how key scholars address similar educational challenges in diverse national contexts. Each section links theory to critical classroom practices and includes a list of sources for further reading to expand upon the selections offered in this volume. A robust collection, this reader is a crucial text for teaching and understanding critical pedagogy on a truly international level. </p>
International Deficit Thinking: Educational Thought and Practice
by Richard R. ValenciaInternational Deficit Thinking: Educational Thought and Practice explores the incontrovertible reality of the persistent and pervasive academic achievement gap in many countries between marginalized students (primarily of color) and their economically advantaged White counterparts. For example, International Deficit Thinking discusses the cases of low-socioeconomic Black and Mexican American students in the United States, Indigenous Māori students in New Zealand, and immigrant Moroccan and Turkish pupils in Belgium. The predominant theoretical perspective that has been advanced to explain the school failure of marginalized students is the deficit thinking paradigm—a parsimonious, endogenous, and pseudoscientific model that blames such students as the makers of their own school failure. Deficit thinking asserts that the low academic achievement of many marginalized students is due to their limited intellectual ability, poor academic achievement motivation, and being raised in dysfunctional families and cultures. Drawing from, in part, critical race theory, systemic inequality analysis, and colonialism/postcolonialism, award-winning author and scholar Richard R.Valencia examines deficit thinking in education in 16 countries (e.g., Canada; Peru, Australia; England; India; South Africa). He seeks to (a) document and debunk deficit thinking as an interpretation for school failure of marginalized students; (b) offer scientifically defensible counternarratives for race-, class-, language-, and gender-based differences in academic achievement; (c) provide suggestions for workable and sustainable school reform for marginalized students.