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Husserl'S Crisis of the European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology
by Dermot MoranThe Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's last and most influential book, written in Nazi Germany where he was discriminated against as a Jew. It incisively identifies the urgent moral and existential crises of the age and defends the relevance of philosophy at a time of both scientific progress and political barbarism. It is also a response to Heidegger, offering Husserl's own approach to the problems of human finitude, history and culture. The Crisis introduces Husserl's influential notion of the 'life-world' – the pre-given, familiar environment that includes both 'nature' and 'culture' – and offers the best introduction to his phenomenology as both method and philosophy. Dermot Moran's rich and accessible introduction to the Crisis explains its intellectual and political context, its philosophical motivations and the themes that characterize it. His book will be invaluable for students and scholars of Husserl's work and of phenomenology in general.
Husserl’s Ideen
by Lester Embree Thomas NenonThis collection of more than two dozen essays by philosophy scholars of international repute traces the profound impact exerted by Husserl's Meisterwerk, known in its shortened title as Ideen, whose first book was released in 1913. Published to coincide with the centenary of its original appearance, and fifty years after the second book went to print in 1952, the contributors offer a comprehensive array of perspectives on the ways in which Husserl's concept of phenomenology influenced leading figures and movements of the last century, including, among others, Ortega y Gassett, Edith Stein, Martin Heidegger, Aron Gurwitsch, Ludwig Landgrebe, Dorion Cairns, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jacques Derrida and Giles Deleuze. In addition to its documentation and analysis of the historical reception of these works, this volume also illustrates the ongoing relevance of the Ideen, offering scholarly discussion of the issues raised by his ideas as well as by the figures who took part in critical phenomenological dialogue with them. Among the topics discussed are autism, empathy, the nature of the emotions, the method and practice of phenomenology, the foundations of ethics, naturalism, intentionality, and human rights, to name but a few. Taken together, these specially commissioned original essays offer an unrivaled overview of the reception of Husserl's Ideen, and the expanding phenomenological enterprise it initiated. They show that the critical discussion of issues by phenomenologists continues to be relevant for the 21st century.
Husserl's Missing Technologies
by Don IhdeHusserl’s Missing Technologies looks at the early-twentieth-century “classical” phenomenology of Edmund Husserl, both in the light of the philosophy of science of his time, and retrospectively at his philosophy from a contemporary “postphenomenology.” Of central interest are his infrequent comments upon technologies and especially scientific instruments such as the telescope and microscope. Together with his analysis of Husserl, Don Ihde ventures through the recent history of technologies of science, reading and writing, and science praxis, calling for modifications to phenomenology by converging it with pragmatism. This fruitful hybridization emphasizes human–technology interrelationships, the role of embodiment and bodily skills, and the inherent multistability of technologies. In a radical argument, Ihde contends that philosophies, in the same way that various technologies contain an ever-shortening obsolescence, ought to have contingent use-lives.
Husserl’s Phenomenology: From Pure Logic to Embodiment (Phaenomenologica #238)
by James Richard MenschThis text examines the many transformations in Husserl’s phenomenology that his discoveries of the nature of appearing lead to. It offers a comprehensive look at the Logical Investigations’ delimitation of the phenomenological field, and continues with Husserl’s account of our consciousness of time. This volume examines Husserl’s turn to transcendental idealism and the problems this raises for our recognition of other subjects. It details Husserl’s account of embodiment and takes largely from his manuscripts, both published and unpublished, dealing with his theory of instincts, his considerations of mortality and the teleological character of our existence. This book appeals to students and researchers and presents a genetic account of our selfhood, one that unifies Husserl’s different claims about who and what we are.
Husserl’s Phenomenology of Intersubjectivity: Historical Interpretations and Contemporary Applications (Routledge Research in Phenomenology)
by Frode Kjosavik Christian Beyer Christel FrickeThis collection examines the instrumental role of intersubjectivity in Husserl’s philosophy and explores the potential for developing novel ways of addressing and resolving contemporary philosophical issues on that basis. This is the first time Iso Kern offers an extensive overview of this rich field of inquiry for an English-speaking audience. Guided by his overview, the remaining articles present new approaches to a range of topics and problems that go to the heart of its core theme of intersubjectivity and methodology. Specific topics covered include intersubjectivity and empathy, intersubjectivity in meaning and communication, intersubjectivity pertaining to collective forms of intentionality and extended forms of embodiment, intersubjectivity as constitutive of normality, and, finally, the central role of intersubjectivity in the sciences. The authors’ perspectives are strongly influenced by Husserl’s own methodological concerns and problem awareness and are formed with a view to applicability in current debates – be it within general epistemology, analytic philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, meta-ethics or philosophy of science. With contributions written by leading Husserl scholars from across the Analytic and Continental traditions, Husserl’s Phenomenology of Intersubjectivity is a clear and accessible resource for scholars and advanced students interested in Husserl’s phenomenology and the relevance of intersubjectivity to philosophy, sociology, and psychology.
Husserl's Transcendental Phenomenology
by Andrea StaitiEdmund Husserl (1859-1938) is regarded as the founder of transcendental phenomenology, one of the major traditions to emerge in twentieth-century philosophy. In this book Andrea Staiti unearths and examines the deep theoretical links between Husserl's phenomenology and the philosophical debates of his time, showing how his thought developed in response to the conflicting demands of Neo-Kantianism and life-philosophy. Drawing on the work of thinkers including Heinrich Rickert, Wilhelm Dilthey and Georg Simmel, as well as Husserl's writings on the natural and human sciences that are not available in English translation, Staiti illuminates a crucial chapter in the history of twentieth-century philosophy and enriches our understanding of Husserl's thought. His book will interest scholars and students of Husserl, phenomenology, and twentieth-century philosophy more generally.
The Hybrid-Corn Makers: Prophets of Plenty
by A. Richard CrabbLong before history began to be recorded, man strove constantly to get plants that would produce greater amounts of food with less labor. Sometimes he obtained this improvement by increasing the food-producing ability of an existing plant, at other times by selecting a more capable new plant. Hybrid corn is the greatest example in recent time of increasing the value of a food-bearing plant by improving one already in common use. The development of hybrid corn is truly one of the most important advances made in all the thousands of years since man first began cultivating special food-bearing plants.What is hybrid corn, and how does it differ from the corn grown before it was developed?
Hybrid Logic and its Proof-Theory
by Torben BraünerThis is the first book-length treatment of hybrid logic and its proof-theory. Hybrid logic is an extension of ordinary modal logic which allows explicit reference to individual points in a model (where the points represent times, possible worlds, states in a computer, or something else). This is useful for many applications, for example when reasoning about time one often wants to formulate a series of statements about what happens at specific times. There is little consensus about proof-theory for ordinary modal logic. Many modal-logical proof systems lack important properties and the relationships between proof systems for different modal logics are often unclear. In the present book we demonstrate that hybrid-logical proof-theory remedies these deficiencies by giving a spectrum of well-behaved proof systems (natural deduction, Gentzen, tableau, and axiom systems) for a spectrum of different hybrid logics (propositional, first-order, intensional first-order, and intuitionistic).
Hybrid Societies: Living with Social Robots (Routledge Studies in Contemporary Philosophy)
by Piercosma BiscontiThis book explores how social robots and synthetic social agents will change our social systems and intersubjective relationships. It is obvious that technology influences societies. But how, and under what conditions do these changes occur? This book provides a theoretical foundation for the social implications of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics. It starts from philosophy of technology, with a focus on social robotics, to systematically explore the concept of socio- technical change. It addresses two main questions: To what extent will social robots modify our social systems? And how will human relationality be affected by human–robot interactions? The book employs resources from continental philosophy, actor–network theory, psychoanalysis, systemic theory, and constructivist cognitive theory to develop a theory of socio-technical change. It also offers a novel perspective on how we should evaluate the effectiveness of social robots, which has significant implications for how social robotics should be researched and designed. Hybrid Societies will appeal to scholars and advanced students working in philosophy of technology, AI ethics, robot ethics, and continental philosophy.
Hybrid Soft Computing for Image Segmentation
by Siddhartha Bhattacharyya Paramartha Dutta Sourav De Goran KlepacThis book proposes soft computing techniques for segmenting real-life images in applications such as image processing, image mining, video surveillance, and intelligent transportation systems. The book suggests hybrids deriving from three main approaches: fuzzy systems, primarily used for handling real-life problems that involve uncertainty; artificial neural networks, usually applied for machine cognition, learning, and recognition; and evolutionary computation, mainly used for search, exploration, efficient exploitation of contextual information, and optimization. The contributed chapters discuss both the strengths and the weaknesses of the approaches, and the book will be valuable for researchers and graduate students in the domains of image processing and computational intelligence.
Hybridity in the Literature of Medieval England (The New Middle Ages)
by Rosanne P. GasseHybridity in the Literature of Medieval England offers a wide-ranging exploration of hybridity in medieval English literature. Anxiety about hybridity surfaces in characters of mixed ethnic identity in the romances. But anxiety is found also in the intersection of the natural and the supernatural and its site can be located inside the human body’s unstable physical frame, living and dead, as much as in the cultural and social forces at work upon the human body politic at large. Hybridity is unlike other constructs of difference in that, while it is grounded in difference, hybridity points toward sameness. The four types of hybridity studied in medieval English literature show that hybridity can resolve the problems caused by difference. Understanding medieval hybridity can help us to deal with our own contemporary struggles with the mixtures of our own lives and societies.
Hydrology and Its Discontents: Contemplations on the Innate Paradoxes of Water Research
by John T. Van Stan II Jack SimmonsThis book examines the intricate web linking water science and society using diverse philosophical lenses. Highlighting the tensions within the threads of this web, we spotlight major conceptual tightropes that water researchers tread daily. To effectively navigate these delicate threads, a 'healthy' tension in the encompassing web is necessary. Drawing inspiration from Freud's examination of tensions in "Society and Its Discontents," we illuminate the tension-filled paradoxes inherent to water science, emphasizing the challenges in keeping these paradoxical threads taut enough to ensure a navigable and sustainable bond with society. Central to our narrative is the escalating societal urge to quantify and 'manage' water—something interwoven throughout every environmental layer, including the fabric of our being. An excessive focus on management may alienate users from their water realities, jeopardizing the vital threads that sustainability tether water science and society. Consequently, this book explores compelling and inescapable tensions that resist tidy universal resolution, such as: the language of water science, including its mathematical reductions (i.e., models); the effect of water's commodification on its science; hydrology’s intersection with colonialism; and other concerns that reveal distortions in our hydrology. We aim to aid water professionals in recognizing and fine-tuning the paradoxes intrinsic to their work. To underscore the interwoven complexity of contemporary hydrology, "Hydrology and Its Discontents" guides readers into the tempestuous depths of water research, all the while urging a recalibration of perspectives and motivations.
Hydroplutonic Kernow
by Robin MackayA geophilosophical odyssey through the remains of Cornwall's industrial past offers a historical portrait of geotrauma in action. This unique document provides a pioneering case study in post-“site-specific” geophilosophy. Based on a weird field trip into Cornwall's mining heartlands with geologists, philosophers, and ecologists as guides, Hydroplutonic Kernow drills down through nature, industry, and cultural capital to site the local within the global, unfolding the telluric plots that manipulated populations and devastated the landscape during the industrial age. In doing so, it provides a historical portrait of geotrauma in action.This geophilosophical odyssey takes us through the remains of the region's industrial past, reading them through the twisted prism of the geocosmic theory of trauma espoused by legendary “cryptographer” Dr. Daniel Barker and further developed by Iranian philosopher Reza Negarestani, and uncovering the deep plot of the Hydroplutonic Conspiracy, the collusion between water and the depths of the earth. Along with full documentation of the trip, the book also contains exegetical materials including an essay by Reza Negarestani, a poem by Jake Chapman, a preface by Caitlin DeSilvey, and an in-depth interview with Mining Engineer Steve Tarrant.
Hylomorphism (Elements in the Philosophy of Biology)
by William M. SimpsonThis Element introduces Aristotle's doctrine of hylomorphism, which provides an account of substances in terms of their 'matter' and 'form', adapting and applying it to the interface between physics and biology. It begins by indicating some reasons for the current revival of hylomorphism and by suggesting a way of classifying the confusing array of hylomorphisms that have arisen. It argues that, in order for composite entities to have irreducible causal powers which make a difference to how nature unfolds, they must have substantial forms which transform their matter such that the powers of their physical parts are grounded in the composite entity as a whole. It suggests how a contemporary form of hylomorphism might contribute to the philosophy of biology by grounding the non-intentional form of teleology that features in the identity conditions of biological systems, affirming a real distinction between living organisms and heaps of matter. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Hylomorphism into Pieces: Elements, Atoms, and Corpuscles in Natural Philosophy and Medicine, 1400–1600 (Palgrave Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Medicine)
by Nicola Polloni Sylvain RoudautFocussing on late medieval and early modern philosophy and medicine, this edited collection explores the replacement of hylomorphism—the dominant theory of bodies in the Middle Ages—with new theories of matter such as corpuscularianism and atomism at the dawn of the Modern period. Together, the contributions offer a comprehensive overview of a crucial historical moment for the history of philosophy and science: the rise of a new conception of matter against declining scholastic theories. They highlight the key aspects of this historical transition by investigating precise concepts that were central to this shift, namely the notions of elements, atoms, and corpuscles. Shedding light on the gradual process by which hylomorphism was eventually replaced by a more positive conception of matter and natural processes, the book demonstrates how many thinkers of the late medieval period were willing to integrate new theories into the conceptual framework of Aristotelian natural philosophy, and tried to harmonise them with the traditional concepts and axioms of scholastic doctrines. Showing how these conceptual innovations resulted from a complex interaction between different fields of late medieval and early modern knowledge, the authors bring together research from the disciplines of metaphysics, medieval philosophy, and medical science. Providing an overview of an important theoretical shift in the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Era, this book is essential reading for scholars of philosophy, and historians of medieval and early modern science and medicine.
Hypatia von Alexandria
by Laurel A. RockefellerAls die westliche Welt in Dunkelheit versank, wagte sie, das Licht zu verteidigen. Geboren im Jahr 355 der christlichen Zeitrechnung, im Nachhall von Konstantins Regierung, lebte Hypatia von Alexandria in einem zusammenbrechenden Römischen Reich. In einer Welt, in der der Gehorsam gegen religiöse Autoritäten über die Wissenschaft triumphierte, in der Logik und Verstand die neue Weltordnung bedrohten. Es war eine Welt an der Grenze zum düsteren Mittelalter, eine Welt, die über die Fragen Wissenschaft gegen Religion, Freiheit gegen Strenggläubigkeit, Toleranz gegen Hass entschied. Über vierzig Jahre stand Hypatia zwischen dem dunklen Zeitalter und dem Licht der Philosophie, Künste und Wissenschaft. Auch wenn keines ihrer Werke die offensive Bücherverbrennung religiöser Fanatiker überdauert hat, so bleibt doch ihr Vermächtnis als eine der größten Gelehrten aller Zeiten. Dies ist ihre faszinierende und wahre Geschichte. Das Buch beinhaltet außerdem eine Bibliografie, eine detaillierte Zeitleiste und die Längen- und Breitengrade ausgewählter Städte des Römischen Reiches, sodass Sie die Wunder des Himmels gemeinsam mit Hypatia erkunden können.
Hyperconnectivity and Digital Reality: Towards the Eutopia of Being Human
by Kathrin Otrel-CassThis book addresses the topic of hyperconnectivity by building on, expanding, and critically examining issues that have to do with information communication technology (ICT) and networked societies. The book explores questions relating to attention and consciousness, techno-capitalism and communicative action taking. Adopting different philosophical angles to assess the challenges we face due to our entanglement with hyperconnected technologies, the book studies performance and performativity in a digitised world by considering the unfolding of our onlife and by looking at what this means to educated future scientists and engineers in a hyperconnected world. The book further discusses digital activities as the new constructs of ourselves and poses questions about how much literacy is needed for us not to be enslaved by those constructs. The book also explores the challenges of hyperconnectivity and the health sector to showcase the vulnerabilities we are increasingly exposed to. It makes clear that - since the boundaries between on- and offline are becoming increasingly blurred - we will require new, flexible frameworks that reconsider what it means to be human in a hyperconnected world.
Hyperculture: Culture and Globalisation
by Byung-Chul HanIn the wake of globalization, cultural forms of expression have become increasingly detached from their places of origin, circulating in a hyper-domain of culture where there is no real difference anymore between indigenous and foreign, near and far, the familiar and the exotic. Heterogeneous cultural contents are brought together side by side, like the fusion food that makes free use of all that the hypercultural pool of spices, ingredients and ways of preparing food has to offer. Culture is becoming un-bound, un-restricted, un-ravelled: a hyperculture. It is a profoundly rhizomatic culture of intense hybridization, fusion and co-appropriation. Today we have all become hypercultural tourists, even in our ‘own’ culture, to which we do not even belong anymore. Hypercultural tourists travel in the hyperspace of events, a space of cultural sightseeing. They experience culture as cul-tour. Drawing on thinkers from Hegel and Heidegger to Bauman and Homi Bhabha to examine the characteristics of our contemporary hyperculture, Han poses the question: should we welcome the human of the future as the hypercultural tourist, smiling serenely, or should we aspire to a different way of being in the world?
Hyperintensionality and Normativity
by Federico L. FaroldiPresenting the first comprehensive, in-depth study of hyperintensionality, this book equips readers with the basic tools needed to appreciate some of current and future debates in the philosophy of language, semantics, and metaphysics. After introducing and explaining the major approaches to hyperintensionality found in the literature, the book tackles its systematic connections to normativity and offers some contributions to the current debates.The book offers undergraduate and graduate students an essential introduction to the topic, while also helping professionals in related fields get up to speed on open research-level problems.
HyperReality: Paradigm for the Third Millenium
by John Tiffin Nobuyoshi Terashima'HyperReality is a technological capability like nanotechnology, human cloning and artificial intelligence. Like them, it does not as yet exist in the sense of being clearly demonstrable and publicly available. Like them, it is maturing in laboratories where the question "if" has been replaced by the question "when?" and like them, the implications of its appearance as a basic infrastructure technology are profound and merit careful consideration.' - Nobuyoshi TerashimaWhat comes after the Internet? Imagine a world where it is difficult to tell if the person standing next to you is real or a virtual reality, and whether they have human intelligence or artificial intelligence; a world where people can appear to be anything they want to be. HyperReality makes this possible.HyperReality offers a window into the world of the future, an interface between the natural and artificial. Nobuyoshi Terashima led the team that developed the prototype for HyperReality at Japan's ATT laboratories. John Tiffin studied they way HyperReality would create a new communications paradigm. Together with a stellar list of contributors from around the globe who are engaged in researching different aspects of HyperReality, they offer the first account of this extraordinary technology and its implications.This fascinating book explores the defining features of HyperReality: what it is, how it works and how it could become to the information society what mass media was to the industrial society. It describes ongoing research into areas such as the design of virtual worlds and virtual humans, and the role of intelligent agents. It looks at applications and ways in which HyperReality may impact on fields such as translation, medicine, education, entertainment and leisure. What are its implications for lifestyles and work, for women and the elderly: Will we grow to prefer the virtual worlds we create to the physical world we adapt to?HyperReality at the beginning of the third millennium is like steam power at the beginning of the nineteenth century and radio at the start of the twentieth century, an idea that has been shown to work but has yet to be applied. This book is for anyone concerned about the future and the effects of technology on our lives.
Hyperthematics: The Logic of Value (SUNY series in American Philosophy and Cultural Thought)
by Marc M. AndersonIn this innovative work, Marc M. Anderson presents an account of value and value creation, which both defines value and introduces a method to manipulate value practically. Using this new methodology, Anderson first explores where value lies in experience, both human and otherwise, uncovering tendencies in human action and the natural world that create and destroy value. From that analysis, he generates practical principles to be applied in creating value in any region or discipline of human experience, at any scale, including corporate organization and product design, economics, the sciences, the arts, urban and architectural design, and sustainable development. He tests this methodology by focusing on the organization and production of commercial corporations in particular, suggesting ways to rethink and transform organization, product creation, and the contemporary currency system. He considers the implications for the many intersections of corporate production with human life, from urban planning, medicine, and food production to pornography, weaponry, and environmental engagement, with corresponding suggestions for transformation toward value. Throughout, Hyperthematics examines complexity, the nature of objects, the inevitable future intermingling of science and ethics, and assumptions driving the contemporary culture wars.
Hypocrisy and the Philosophical Intentions of Rousseau: The Jean-Jacques Problem
by Matthew D. MendhamWhy did Rousseau fail—often so ridiculously or grotesquely—to live up to his own principles? In one of the most notorious cases of hypocrisy in intellectual history, this champion of the joys of domestic life immediately rid himself of each of his five children, placing them in an orphans' home. He advocated profound devotion to republican civic life, and yet he habitually dodged opportunities for political engagement. Finally, despite an elevated ethics of social duty, he had a pattern of turning against his most intimate friends, and ultimately fled humanity and civilization as such.In Hypocrisy and the Philosophical Intentions of Rousseau, Matthew D. Mendham is the first to systematically analyze Rousseau's normative philosophy and self-portrayals in view of the yawning gap between them. He challenges recent approaches to "the Jean-Jacques problem," which tend either to dismiss his life or to downgrade his principles. Engaging in a comprehensive and penetrating analysis of Rousseau's works, including commonly neglected texts like his untranslated letters, Mendham reveals a figure who urgently sought to reconcile his life to his most elevated principles throughout the period of his main normative writings. But after the revelation of the secret about his children, and his disastrous stay in England, Rousseau began to shrink from the ambitious philosophical life to which he had previously aspired, newly driven to mitigate culpability for his discarded children, to a new quietism regarding civic engagement, and to a collapse of his sense of social duty. This book provides a moral biography in view of Rousseau's most controversial behaviors, as well as a preamble to future discussions of the spirit of his thought, positing a development more fundamental than the recent paradigms have allowed for.
The Hypocritical Imagination: Between Kant and Levinas (Warwick Studies in European Philosophy)
by John LlewellynFor philosophers such as Kant, the imagination is the starting point for all thought. For others, such as Wittgenstein, what is important is only how the word 'imagination' is used. In spite of the attention the imagination has received from major philosophers, remarkably little has been written about the radically different interpretations they have made of it.The HypoCritical Imagination: Between Kant and Levinas is an outstanding contribution to this vaccuum. Focusing on Kant and Levinas, John Llewelyn takes us on a dazzling tour of the philosophical imagination. He shows us that despite the different treatments they accord to the imagination, there is much to be gained from comparing these two key thinkers. From Kant, Llewelyn shows how the imagination is the common root of all understanding. He contrasts this with the thought of Emmanuel Levinas, for whom the imagination plays an ambivalent role both as necessary for and a threat to recognition of the other.John Llewelyn also introduces the importance of the work of Heidegger Schelling, Hegel, Arendt and Derrida on the imagination and what this work can tell us about the relationship between the imagination and ethics, aesthetics and literature.The HypoCritical Imagination: Between Kant and Levinas is a brilliant reading of a neglected but important philosophical theme and is essential reading for those in contemporary philosophy, art theory and literature.
Hypotheses and Perspectives in the History and Philosophy of Science
by Raffaele Pisano Joseph Agassi Daria DrozdovaTo commemorate the 50th anniversary of his passing (in 2014), this special book features studies on Alexandre Koyr#65533; (1892-1964), one of the most influential historians of science of the 20th century, who re-evaluated prevalent thinking on the history and philosophy of science. In particular, it explores Koyr#65533;'s intellectual matrix and heritage within interdisciplinary fields of historical, epistemological and philosophical scientific thought. Koyr#65533; is rightly noted as both a versatile historian on the birth and development of modern science and for his interest in philosophical questions on the nature of scientific knowledge. In the 1940s and 1950s his activities in the United States established a crucial bridge between the European historical tradition of science studies and the American academic environments, and an entire generation of historians of science grew up under his direct influence. The book brings together contributions from leading experts in the field, and offers much-needed insights into the subject from historical, nature of science, and philosophical perspectives. It provides an absorbing and revealing read for historians, philosophers and scientists alike.
Hypothesis and Perception: The Roots of Scientific Method (Humanities Paperback Library)
by Errol E. HarrisThis is Volume X of seventeen in a collection of works on the Philosophy of Mind and Psychology in the Library of Philosophy which was designed as a contribution to the History of Modern Philosophy under the heads: first of Different Schools of Thought-Sensationalist, Realist, Idealist, Intuitivist; secondly of different Subjects-Psychology, Ethics, Political Philosophy, Theology. Originally published in 1970, this volume brings together essays on Hypothesis and Perception.