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The Legitimacy of the Middle Ages: On the Unwritten History of Theory
by Andrew Cole D. Vance SmithThis collection of essays argues that any valid theory of the modern should--indeed must--reckon with the medieval. Offering a much-needed correction to theorists such as Hans Blumenberg, who in his Legitimacy of the Modern Age describes the "modern age" as a complete departure from the Middle Ages, these essays forcefully show that thinkers from Adorno to Žižek have repeatedly drawn from medieval sources to theorize modernity. To forget the medieval, or to discount its continued effect on contemporary thought, is to neglect the responsibilities of periodization. In The Legitimacy of the Middle Ages, modernists and medievalists, as well as scholars specializing in eighteenth-, nineteenth-, and twentieth-century comparative literature, offer a new history of theory and philosophy through essays on secularization and periodization, Marx's (medieval) theory of commodity fetishism, Heidegger's scholasticism, and Adorno's nominalist aesthetics. One essay illustrates the workings of medieval mysticism in the writing of Freud's most famous patient, Daniel Paul Schreber, author of Memoirs of My Nervous Illness (1903). Another looks at Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri's Empire, a theoretical synthesis whose conscientious medievalism was the subject of much polemic in the post-9/11 era, a time in which premodernity itself was perceived as a threat to western values. The collection concludes with an afterword by Fredric Jameson, a theorist of postmodernism who has engaged with the medieval throughout his career. Contributors: Charles D. Blanton, Andrew Cole, Kathleen Davis, Michael Hardt, Bruce Holsinger, Fredric Jameson, Ethan Knapp, Erin Labbie, Jed Rasula, D. Vance Smith, Michael Uebel
The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices (Totalitarianism Movements and Political Religions)
by Helmut Dubiel Gabriel MotzkinThis book comprises 14 essays by scholars who disagree about the methods and purposes of comparing Nazism and Communism. The central idea is that if these two different memories of evil were to develop in isolation, their competition for significance would distort the real evils both movements propagated. Whilst many reject this comparison because they feel it could relativize the evil of one of these movements, the claim that a political movement is uniquely evil can only be made by comparing it to another movement.How do these issues affect postwar interrelations between memory and history? Are there tensions between the ways postwar societies remember these atrocities, and the ways in which intellectuals and scholars reconstruct what happened? Nazism and Communism have been constantly compared since the 1920s. A sense of the ways in which these comparisons have been used and abused by both Right and Left belongs to our common history.These twentieth century evils invite comparison, if only because of their traumatic effects. We have an obligation to understand what happened, and we also have an obligation to understand how we have dealt with it.
The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror
by Michael IgnatieffMust we fight terrorism with terror, match assassination with assassination, and torture with torture? Must we sacrifice civil liberty to protect public safety? In the age of terrorism, the temptations of ruthlessness can be overwhelming. But we are pulled in the other direction too by the anxiety that a violent response to violence makes us morally indistinguishable from our enemies. There is perhaps no greater political challenge today than trying to win the war against terror without losing our democratic souls. Michael Ignatieff confronts this challenge head-on, with the combination of hard-headed idealism, historical sensitivity, and political judgment that has made him one of the most influential voices in international affairs today. Ignatieff argues that we must not shrink from the use of violence--that far from undermining liberal democracy, force can be necessary for its survival. But its use must be measured, not a program of torture and revenge. And we must not fool ourselves that whatever we do in the name of freedom and democracy is good. We may need to kill to fight the greater evil of terrorism, but we must never pretend that doing so is anything better than a lesser evil. In making this case, Ignatieff traces the modern history of terrorism and counter-terrorism, from the nihilists of Czarist Russia and the militias of Weimar Germany to the IRA and the unprecedented menace of Al Qaeda, with its suicidal agents bent on mass destruction. He shows how the most potent response to terror has been force, decisive and direct, but--just as important--restrained. The public scrutiny and political ethics that motivate restraint also give democracy its strongest weapon: the moral power to endure when the furies of vengeance and hatred are spent. The book is based on the Gifford Lectures delivered at the University of Edinburgh in 2003.
The Lesser Existences: Étienne Souriau, an Aesthetics for the Virtual (Univocal)
by David LapoujadeOn the complex aesthetics and ontology at work in Étienne Souriau&’s unique oeuvre In this concise but expansive exegesis of the philosophical aesthetics of Étienne Souriau, philosopher David Lapoujade provides a lucid introduction to many of the key concepts underpinning Souriau&’s existential pluralism. Among the various modes of existence that populate a world, Souriau grants particular importance to virtual beings—the lesserexistences. Always taking the form of a sketch or an outline, the perfection of such existences lies precisely in the incompletion with which they imbue all reality. They exist with a problematizing force, posing questions and inviting the establishment of an &“art&” that would make them more real. And yet, for this to happen, another existence must first see them—must be capable of hearing their appeals—and must be willing to defend their right to exist.Through discussions of modern art ranging from the dispossessed characters of Kafka and Beckett to the grids of Agnes Martin and the protographies of Oscar Muñoz, Lapoujade leads the reader into a complex philosophical world, brimming with modal existences and animated by a unique conception of creative processes, where the philosopher as artist or artist as philosopher becomes an advocate, defending the right of certain realities to gain in existence. For Souriau, nothing is given in advance, everything is a work in the making: such is the instaurative practice that grounds his entire oeuvre.
The Lesson of Carl Schmitt: Four Chapters on the Distinction between Political Theology and Political Philosophy
by Heinrich MeierHeinrich Meier’s work on Carl Schmitt has dramatically reoriented the international debate about Schmitt and his significance for twentieth-century political thought. In The Lesson of Carl Schmitt, Meier identifies the core of Schmitt’s thought as political theology—that is, political theorizing that claims to have its ultimate ground in the revelation of a mysterious or suprarational God. This radical, but half-hidden, theological foundation underlies the whole of Schmitt’s often difficult and complex oeuvre, rich in historical turns and political convolutions, intentional deceptions and unintentional obfuscations. In four chapters on morality, politics, revelation, and history, Meier clarifies the difference between political philosophy and Schmitt’s political theology and relates the religious dimension of his thought to his support for National Socialism and his continuing anti-Semitism. New to this edition are two essays that address the recently published correspondences of Schmitt—particularly with Hans Blumberg—and the light it sheds on his conception of political theology.
The Lesson of this Century: With Two Talks on Freedom and the Democratic State
by Karl PopperOne of the century's greatest and most influential thinkers, Karl Popper reminds us that we must recognize our responsibilities in preserving the democratic system we enjoy: it is our actions which will create the world of tomorrow.In these interviews with journalist Giancarlo Bosetti, Karl Popper ranges widely over contemporary political and social issues. He reflects on many topics, from the decline of the Soviet Union and the danger of a Third World War, to our obligations to children and the potentially harmful influence of television. He warns us that the increasing violence and egotism of our society, if unchecked, will imperil our civilisation. The volume also contains two talks on the theory of democracy, arguing that democracy has never been the rule of the people (nor can or should it be), but only the best method we know for preventing tyranny.
The Lessons of History
by Will Durant Ariel DurantIn this illuminating and thoughtful book, Will and Ariel Durant have succeeded in distilling for the reader the accumulated store of knowledge and experience from their four decades of work on the ten monumental volumes of The Story of Civilization. The result is a survey of human history, full of dazzling insights into the nature of human experience, the evolution of civilization, the culture of man. With the completion of their life's work they look back and ask what history has to say about the nature, the conduct and the prospects of man, seeking in the great lives, the great ideas, the great events of the past for the meaning of man's long journey through war, conquest and creation -- and for the great themes that can help us to understand our own era.To the Durants, history is "not merely a warning reminder of man's follies and crimes, but also an encouraging remembrance of generative souls...a spacious country of the mind, wherein a thousand saints, statesmen, inventors, scientists, poets, artists, musicians, lovers, and philosophers still live and speak, teach and carve and sing...."Designed to accompany the ten-volume set of The Story of Civilization, The Lessons of History is, in its own right, a profound and original work of history and philosophy.
The Lessons of Tragedy: Statecraft and World Order
by Hal Brands Charles EdelA “brilliant” examination of American complacency and how it puts the nation’s—and the world’s—security at risk (The Wall Street Journal).The ancient Greeks hard-wired a tragic sensibility into their culture. By looking disaster squarely in the face, by understanding just how badly things could spiral out of control, they sought to create a communal sense of responsibility and courage—to spur citizens and their leaders to take the difficult actions necessary to avert such a fate. Today, after more than seventy years of great-power peace and a quarter-century of unrivaled global leadership, Americans have lost their sense of tragedy. They have forgotten that the descent into violence and war has been all too common throughout human history. This amnesia has become most pronounced just as Americans and the global order they created are coming under graver threat than at any time in decades.In a forceful argument that brims with historical sensibility and policy insights, two distinguished historians argue that a tragic sensibility is necessary if America and its allies are to address the dangers that menace the international order today. Tragedy may be commonplace, Brands and Edel argue, but it is not inevitable—so long as we regain an appreciation of the world’s tragic nature before it is too late.“Literate and lucid—sure to interest to readers of Fukuyama, Huntington, and similar authors as well as students of modern realpolitik.” —Kirkus Reviews
The Letters of Abelard and Heloise
by M. T. Clanchy Betty RadiceThe story of the relationship between Abelard and Heloise is told through the letters of Peter Abelard, a French philosopher and one of the greatest logicians of the twelfth century, and of his gifted pupil Heloise. Through their impassioned writings unfolds the story of a romance, from its reckless, ecstatic beginnings through to public scandal, an enforced marriage and its devastating consequences. They also offer insight into religious life in the Middle Ages. This is the revised edition of Betty Radice's translation, in which Michael Clanchy, the biographer of Abelard, updates the scholarship on the letters and the lovers. This volume includes Abelard's autobiography and his spiritual advice to Heloise and her nuns, as well as a selection of the 'lost love letters' of Abelard and Heloise, letters between Heloise and Peter the Venerable, two of Abelard's hymns, a chronology, notes and maps.
The Letters of Abelard and Heloise
by C. K. MoncrieffAbelard, a prominent twelfth-century theologian, is hired to tutor Heloise, a brilliant pupil who becomes his lover and the mother of his child. Although the two are secretly married, a misunderstanding leads to Abelard's castration by Heloise's uncle, followed by the lovers' permanent separation. Abelard retreats to a monastery and Heloise to a nunnery — and their subsequent correspondence captured the romantic imaginations of generations of readers. The letters offer insights into the thinking of Abelard, who ranks among the Middle Ages' foremost philosophers, and the spirited determination of Heloise, an early feminist. They have also excited ongoing controversy in terms of their historical content and significance. Translator C. K. Scott Moncrieff takes a modern approach to the correspondence, adding new significance to its reflection of medieval attitudes toward love, marriage, and religion.
The Letters of Martin Buber
by Martin Buber"No matter how brilliant it may be, the human intellect that wishes to keep to a plane above the events of the day is not really alive," wrote Martin Buber in 1932. The correspondence of Martin Buber reveals a personality passionately involved in all the cultural and political events of his day. Drawn from the three-volume German edition of his correspondence, this collection includes letters both to and from the leading personalities of his day--Albert Einstein and Albert Schweitzer, Hemann Hesse, Franz Kafka, and Stefan Zweig, Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, S.Y. Agnon, Gershom Scholem, and Franz Rosenzweig. These exchanges capture the dynamics of seven decades of lived history, reflected through the eyes of a man who was the conscience of his generation. One of the leading spiritual thinkers of the twentieth century, Buber is best known for his work of religious existentialism, I and Thou. A prime mover in the German-Jewish renaissance of the 1920s, he taught comparative religion and Jewish ethics at the University of Frankfurt. Fleeing the Nazis in 1938, Buber made his home in Jerusalem, where he taught social philosophy at the Hebrew University. As resident sage of Jerusalem, he developed an international reputation and following, and carried on a vigorous correspondence on social, political, and religious issues until the end of his life. Included in this collection are Buber's exchanges with many Americans in the latter part of his life: Will Herberg, Walter Kaufmann, Maurice Friedman, Malcolm Diamond, and other individuals who sought his advice and guidance. In the voices of these letters, a full-blooded portrait emerges of a towering intellect ever striving to live up to philosophy of social engagement.
The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti
by Nicola Sacco Bartolomeo VanzettiCommemorating the eightieth anniversary of Sacco and Vanzetti's execution- with a new cover and new foreword Electrocuted in 1927 for the murder of two guards in Massachusetts, the Italian- American anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti defied the verdict against them, maintaining their innocence to the end. Whether they were guilty continues to be the subject of debate today. First published in 1928, Sacco and Vanzetti's letters represent one of the great personal documents of the twentieth century: a volume of primary source material as famous for the splendor of its impassioned prose as for the brilliant light it sheds on the characters of the two dedicated anarchists who became the focus of worldwide attention. .
The Leveller Revolution: Radical Political Organisation in England, 1640-1650
by John ReesThe gripping story of the Levellers, the radical movement at the heart of the English RevolutionThe Levellers, formed out of the explosive tumult of the 1640s and the battlefields of the Civil War, are central figures in the history of democracy. In this thrilling narrative, John Rees brings to life the men--including John Lilburne, Richard Overton and Thomas Rainsborough--and women who ensured victory and became an inspiration to republicans of many nations.From the raucous streets of London and the clattering printers' workshops that stoked the uprising, to the rank and file of the New Model Army and the furious Putney debates where the Levellers argued with Oliver Cromwell for the future of English democracy, this story reasserts the revolutionary nature of the 1642-51 wars and the role of ordinary people in this pivotal moment in history.In particular Rees places the Levellers at the centre of the debates of 1647 when the nation was gripped by the question of what to do with the defeated Charles I. Without the Levellers and Agitators' fortitude and well-organised opposition history may have avoided the regicide and missed its revolutionary moment. The legacy of the Levellers can be seen in the modern struggles for freedom and democracy across the world.
The Lib-Lab Pact: A Parliamentary Agreement, 1977-78
by Jonathan KirkupThe Lib-Lab Pact examines the only formal cross-party understanding at Westminster between 1945-2010. Through the use of archival sources and unique interviews with key participants, this study brings new insights into how an agreement, short of a full coalition, came about, how it was administered, and how it impacted on both political parties. Jonathan Kirkup investigates the particular turn of events in 1977 which led to a Pact between Prime Minister, James Callaghan, and Liberal Party leader, David Steel. A review of the negotiating process reveals, for the first time, that David Steel might have achieved more policy concessions, specifically on electoral reform. This volume explores the intra-party conflict which ensued in the Liberal Party, ultimately threatening the position of Steel as leader, as policy objectives were not realized. The legacy of the Pact is assessed, and how it influenced the strategy of the Liberal Party and Liberal Democrat politicians for the next thirty years.
The Liberal Heart of Europe: Essays in Memory of Alberto Giovannini
by Francesco Giavazzi Alberto Mingardi Francesco Lefebvre D’OvidioWas the European Union ever a liberal dream? How did the common market impact the liberalization in its member states? Has the EU fostered more or less economic freedom in the Old Continent? This book explores the intellectual and political genesis of the European Union, focusing especially on its relationship to classical liberalism. It explains how the new enthusiasm for liberalization associated with Reagan and Thatcher helped revive the European project in the 1980s, while providing some insights on the current challenges Europe is facing as a result of the financial crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic. The contributors highlight the role of liberal, pro-market ideas played in shaping the EU, the single market and the euro, and how these should be coming into play again if the European project is to be reanimated. This volume originates from a conference the Italian think tank Istituto Bruno Leoni hosted in 2019 and is dedicated to Alberto Giovannini (1955-2019). Giovannini was an influential macroeconomist and financial economist. His vast legacy of studies and ideas prompted this book in his honor, on the occasion of his untimely passing away.
The Liberal International Theory Tradition in Europe (Trends in European IR Theory)
by Knud Erik JørgensenThis book examines how the liberal international theory tradition evolved in Europe. It includes nine chapters focusing on both historical and contemporary branches of liberal IR theorizing. The combined portrait of the prominent IR theory orientation shows a long and rich theoretical tradition but also a tradition that the scholarly community rarely fully recognize. It is currently somewhat challenged and therefore in need of further advances. Concerning the historical branches, the authors present a truly European tradition that thus was not only present in a few countries. The contributors introduce examples of liberal theorizing that IR scholars tend to dismiss and they trace the boundaries between the liberal and other theoretical traditions. Given the prominence of the tradition, the book is surprisingly among the first to present a transnational perspective on the development of the liberal international theory tradition in Europe.
The Liberal Internet in the Postliberal Era: Digital Sovereignty, Private Government, and Practices of Neutralization
by Johannes ThumfartThis book begins with an examination of the internet as a central institution of the post-Cold War liberal order. From this starting point, Johannes Thumfart analyzes the contemporary rise of digital sovereignty in Asia and Europe, alongside the establishment of private government within digital networks. He interprets these phenomena as indications of an emerging postliberal era. Thumfart engages with a wide array of empirical research and assesses liberal ideals such as state and net neutrality by discussing thinkers like Hegel, Schmitt, Mouffe, Taylor, Sandel, Fukuyama, Anderson, and Jasanoff, as well as network and rational choice theories. He contends that the internet's reification of liberal values has, paradoxically, subverted these values and catalyzed the transition to postliberalism. Thumfart suggests that instead of adhering to the traditional liberal focus on neutrality, states should adopt a more flexible approach of neutralization to respond to the complexities of this digital and postliberal era.
The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Party: Intellectuals and the Liberal Party of Australia
by Geoffrey RobinsonRobinson analyses the peculiarly Australian intellectual tradition of liberal conservatism within the mainstream centre-right Liberal Party of Australia. Conservative intellectuals in Australia have forged a pragmatic, sceptical and utilitarian liberal conservatism focused on the tasks of government. It remains distant both from the romantic and organicist ideas of the populist right and the simplicities of libertarianism.Focusing on key figures within this tradition, Robinson tracks the progress of Australian liberal conservatism over the years through its origins in the work of David Hume to the thoughts of Peter Coleman, David Kemp and Andrew Norton before moving forward to George Brandis and Gregory Melleuish. The Liberal Party of Australia has appealed successfully to the conservative sentiments of voters in a liberal society. The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Party tells the story of seven intellectuals who helped make this possible. Peter Coleman drew on John Anderson, Georges Sorel and Michael Oakeshott to champion neoconservatism. He argues that this potent political ideology has shaped a distinct political identity, which rejects conservative traditionalism, and libertarian economics, while defending a pragmatic approach to capitalism.A fascinating read for students and scholars of Australian politics, this book will also be of great value to readers with an interest in international centre-right politics.
The Liberal Politics of John Locke (Routledge Library Editions: 17th Century Philosophy)
by M. SeligerOriginally published in 1968. This book presents the synthesis of a coherent view of the Lockeian argument from his various works. This tests the inner consistency of Locke’s political theory against his own examples from history. The layers of Locke’s argumentation are analysed on metaphysics in the first part, his attitude towards historical precedents in the second, and in the third with the nature of the regime which he was ready to endorse. This provides the guidelines for a comprehensive reassessment of the liberal tradition, as well as an evaluation of what is still vital to it.
The Liberal State and the Politics of Virtue
by Ludvig BeckmanAt the start of the new millennium there has been a growing awareness that traditional political institutions and ideologies do not correspond to the demands and aspirations held by many individuals and groups. Ideals and interests previously without much impact on the political debate have gained access to the public arena. These new claims include demands for recognition of homosexuals and their rights, affirmation of the particularities of indigenous peoples, sensitivity to the cultures and languages of immigrants, respect for children and their needs, solidarity with people of the developing countries and their fight for independence, care for nature, animals, attention to the social status of women, and so on. As a consequence, many governments now regulate and support many different conceptions of the good life and its virtues.In this volume, schematically divided into two parts, Ludvig Beckman challenges the common view that support for the good life, the politics of virtue, is in conflict with liberal principles. In clear, analytical language he addresses the question of what a state should do. Chapter 1 attempts to specify the meaning of "liberalism"; chapter 2 discusses the meaning of tolerance and makes more specific the notion of "virtue"; chapters 3 and 4 assess ethical and political liberalism as exemplified by the writings of Ronald Dworkin and John Rawls. In part two, chapter 5 discusses the clash between norms of justice and conceptions of virtue in the family; chapter 6 explores the meaning of the idea of an ethically neutral state; chapter 7 explores three different arguments for the neutral state as found in the work of Ronald Dworkin; chapter 8 presents an analysis of the idea of the neutral state with the theory of John Rawls put under scrutiny; chapter 9 explains why the attempt to justify the neutral state by referring to modified skepticism fails and proposes a distinction between being skeptical and being critical.Participating in the current debate on communitarianism, The Liberal State and the Politics of Virtue will be particularly interesting to people engaged in the public debate on ethics, morality and the state. It will also be of interest to teachers and researchers in the fields of politics and philosophy.
The Liberal Tradition in America: The Classic on the Causes and Effects of Liberal Thought in the U.S.
by Louis HartzThis &“brilliantly written&” look at the original meaning of the liberal philosophy has become a classic of political science (American Historical Review). Winner of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award As the word &“liberal&” has been misused and its meaning diluted in recent decades, this study of American political thought since the Revolution is a valuable look at the &“liberal tradition&” that has been central to US history. Louis Hartz, who taught government at Harvard, shows how individual liberty, equality, and capitalism have been the values at the root of liberalism—and offers enlightening historical context that reminds us of America&’s unique place and important role in the world. &“Lively and thought-provoking . . . Fascinating reading.&” —The Review of Politics Includes an introduction by Tom Wicker
The Liberal Way of War: Killing to Make Life Live
by Julian Reid Michael DillonThe liberal way of war and the liberal way of rule are correlated; this book traces that correlation to liberalism's original commitment to 'making life live'. Committed to making life live, liberalism is committed to waging war on behalf of life, specifically to promote the biopolitical life of species being; what the book calls 'the biohuman'. Tracking the advent of the age of life-as-information - complex, adaptive and emergent - while contrasting biopolitics with geopolitics, the book details how and why the liberal way of rule wages war on the human in the cause of instituting the biohuman. Contingent and emergent, the biohuman is however continuously also becoming-dangerous to itself. It therefore requires constant surveillance to anticipate the threats it presents to its own flourishing. The book explains how, in making life live, liberal rule finds its expression, today, in making the biohuman live the emergency of its emergence. Thus does liberal peace become the continuation of war by other means. Just as the information and molecular revolutions have combined to transform liberal military-strategic thinking so also has it contributed to the discourse of global danger through which global liberal governance currently legitimates the liberal way of war.
The Liberalism of Care: Community, Philosophy, & Ethics
by Shawn C. FraistatAttention to care in modern society has fallen out of view as an ethos of personal responsibility, free markets, and individualism has taken hold. The Liberalism of Care argues that contemporary liberalism is suffering from a crisis of care, manifest in a decaying sense of collective political responsibility for citizens’ well-being and for the most vulnerable members of our communities. Political scientist Shawn C. Fraistat argues that we have lost the political language of care, which, prior the nineteenth century, was commonly used to express these dimensions of political life. To recover that language, Fraistat turns to three prominent philosophers—Plato, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and William Godwin—who illuminate the varied ways caring language and caring values have structured core debates in the history of Western political thought about the proper role of government, as well as the rights and responsibilities of citizens. The Liberalism of Care presents a distinctive vision for our liberal politics where political communities and citizens can utilize the ethic and practices of care to face practical challenges.
The Liberation Debate: Rights at Issue
by Michael Leahy Dan Cohn-SherbokThis well-documented collection challenges the reader to examine and judge the arguments in six areas of contemporary unrest: women's liberation, black liberation, gay liberation, children's liberation, animal liberation and liberation in the Third World. It refrains from taking a single point of view, thus allowing the reader to gain an insight into the various aspects of the debate. Designed both for students and a general audience, The Liberation Debate encourages readers to become active participants in fraught and topical debates.
The Liberation of Life through Death: Reading Tolstoy’s “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”
by Jason HoultThis book undertakes to show how the exercise of reading Tolstoy’s “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” involves articulating for ourselves, as readers, what it means to liberate life through death. What Tolstoy’s short story shows us, the author argues, is that life can be truly liberated through death only when we see that death is neither a supernatural event nor a natural end but involves a work of love. In Part 1 of his study, the author addresses the common assumptions that give rise to the idea that religious and secular views of life and death are opposed in modernity. He also examines the history of values that Tolstoy’s story embodies. In Part 2, he analyses the life and death of Ivan Ilyich in order to show that the values that are embedded in Tolstoy’s story are at once religious and secular.