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Social Constructions of Water Quality in South Africa: A case study of the Blesbokspruit River in the Context of Acid Mine Drainage Treatment
by Suvania NaidooThis book details how the water quality of the Blesbokspruit River in Gauteng, South Africa was socially constructed by stakeholders and key individuals in the context of acid mine drainage (AMD) and its treatment. Social constructionism is used as the framing for this research to explain how water is intrinsically social. Findings presented here show that stakeholders are aware that the changes in the physicality of the Blesbokspruit resulted from human interventions and varied uses of the water over the years. Such knowledge, among factors such as the historical context of mining, current coal mining, flows and volumes of water, technology used and processes followed, information and communication, and vested interests influence social constructions of the water quality. What counts as the truth about water varies depending on the individual’s perspective, their purpose, and their individual interests. Further, how one defines water quality influences what treatment processes are preferred in order to improve water quality. The book explains why, for example, a treatment process meant to improve water quality gained a bad reputation by the public because of the South African government’s silo approach. The book explains how these social constructions are entrenched in power relations between stakeholders regarding AMD treatment and illustrates how power was used to influence decisions to improve the water quality of the Blesbokspruit. The case presented in this book offers insights and recommendations for policymakers working in water governance, including means to influence social constructions of water quality and ways to clarify roles and responsibilities in pursuit of improved cooperative government.
Social Constructivism as Paradigm?: The Legacy of The Social Construction of Reality (Knowledge, Communication and Society)
by Hubert Knoblauch Michaela PfadenhauerSocial constructivism is one of the most prominent theoretical approaches in the social sciences. This volume celebrates the 50th anniversary of its first formulation in Peter Berger and Luckmann’s classic foundational text, The Social Construction of Reality. Addressing the work’s contribution to establishing social constructivism as a paradigm and discussing its potential for current questions in social theory, the contributing authors indicate the various cultural understandings and theoretical formulations that exist of social construction, its different fields of research and the promising new directions for future research that it presents in its most recent developments. A study of the importance of a work that established a paradigm in the international sociology of knowledge, this book will appeal to scholars of sociology with interests in social theory, the history of the social sciences and the significance of social constructivism.
Social Continuity and Rupture in Rural China I: The Internal Dynamics of the Huizhou Hyper-stability Structure (China Perspectives)
by Tang LixingAs the first of a two-volume set examining the distinctive social structure and governance of Huizhou, China, this book focuses on the internal elements of this social functioning.From the sixteenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Huizhou, a historic region in what is now Anhui Province in China, was characterized by long-term social stability and prosperity. Even during times of war and unrest, Huizhou was able to quickly restore order. This two-volume study explores the reasons for this stability and its relevance and implications for contemporary society. In this first volume, the author provides an insider’s view of the factors that contributed to this remarkable social stability. It begins with an account of the historical context of the region, including clans, businessmen, and non-state institutions. The book then examines the internal drivers of this stable society, including autonomous local governance based on Confucian culture, merchant culture, and clan culture, which together ensured effective leadership of various non-governmental organizations.The title will appeal to scholars and students of Chinese history, social and economic history in modern China, as well as readers interested in China’s transition to modernity.
Social Continuity and Rupture in Rural China II: The External Dynamics of the Huizhou Hyper-stability Structure (China Perspectives)
by Tang LixingAs the second volume of a two-volume set that examines the distinctive social structure and governance of Huizhou, China, this book focuses on the external factors that influence and renew social functioning.From the sixteenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Huizhou, a historic region in what is now Anhui Province in China, was characterized by longterm social stability and prosperity. Even during times of war and unrest, Huizhou was able to quickly restore order. This two-volume study explores the reasons for this stability and its relevance and implications for contemporary society. In this second volume, the author examines a group of ‘outsiders’ to Huizhou society, who conducted business outside the region while maintaining their hometown and linking their social networks from both urban and rural Huizhou. The book discusses how local tradition and rural governance were sustained through wars and social unrest. It also illustrates how a new, modernized order was re-established after the devastation of war and communist reform in the twentieth century.The title will appeal to scholars and students of Chinese history, the social and economic history of modern China, and readers interested in China’s transition to modernity.
Social Control and Self-Control Theories of Crime and Deviance (The\library Of Essays In Theoretical Criminology Ser.)
by L.Edward WellsControl theories have dominated criminological theory and research since the 1969 publication of Hirschi's seminal work on the social bond. Social control and self-control theorists are unique in suggesting that patterns in criminal behaviors are better explained by variations in social constraints rather than by individual motivational impulses, thus indicating that their main concerns are the explication and clarification of the techniques, processes, and institutions of informal social control. The four major sections of this volume focus on: the similarities and differences among the major contributors to the early developmental stage of social control theory; the central importance of parents, peers, and schools in the creation of informal control mechanisms and their link to crime and delinquency; the theoretical underpinnings of self-control theory, including empirical tests and criticisms; and theoretical integrations of social control and self-control theories with various motivational theories of crime and delinquency.
Social Control and Socialization: A Study of Class Differences in the Language of Maternal Control (Primary Socialization, Language and Education)
by Jenny Cook-GumperzBasil Bernstein’s theory of social control was the foundation for this pioneer study of the language mothers use to socialize their children, and how it affects their understanding of social values and social attitudes as they grow older.Originally published in 1973, Dr Cook-Gumperz’s research was particularly important in that it made use of analytical methods which could measure numerically the manifestations of the three kinds of control – imperative, positional, personal – that Bernstein distinguished. Using the coding grid developed by Professor Bernstein and herself, Jenny Cook-Gumperz demonstrates clearly the relations between maternal class, maternal approach to discipline and the child’s progress. By showing that the effects of early upbringing on the educational potential of children were measurable, this significant work in the comparatively new field of sociolinguistics would form a basis for the methodological approach to further practical investigations of a similar nature at the time. Today it can be read in its historical context.
Social Control of Sex Offenders
by D. Richard LawsThis book surveys the history, current status, and critical issues regarding the various mechanisms designed to control sex offenders. It shows that the social problem of sex offending is not apparently resolvable by any of the means currently employed. A large array of procedures are used in the attempt to control the difficult population of sex offenders, including: imprisonment, institutional and community treatment, community monitoring by probation and parole, electronic monitoring, registration as a sex offender, community notification of an offender's status, strict limits on behavioral movement in the community, and residence restrictions. However, these constraints on behavior are almost completely the result of public outrage regarding sensational sex crimes, overreaction of media coverage that produce inaccurate statements of potential community risk, and the efforts of the legal profession and politicians to quell this anger and foreboding by enacting legislation that supposedly confronts the risk. This book demonstrates that we have constructed a massive edifice of community control that is socially and politically driven and which has largely failed to contain sex crime.
Social Control under Stalin and Khrushchev: The Phantom of a Well-Ordered State
by Immo Rebitschek Aaron B. RetishHow did the Soviet Union control the behaviour of its people? How did the people themselves engage with the official rules and the threat of violence in their lives? In this book, the contributors examine how social control developed under Stalin and Khrushchev. Drawing on deep archival research from across the former Soviet Union, they analyse the wide network of state institutions that were used for regulating individual behaviour and how Soviet citizens interacted with them. Together they show that social control in the Soviet Union was not entirely about the monolithic state imposing its vision with violent force. Instead, a wide range of institutions such as the police, the justice system, and party-sponsored structures in factories and farms tried to enforce control. The book highlights how the state leadership itself adjusted its policing strategies and moved away from mass repression towards legal pressure for policing society. Ultimately, Social Control under Stalin and Khrushchev explores how the Soviet state controlled the behaviour of its citizens and how the people relied on these structures.
Social Conventions: From Language to Law (Princeton Monographs in Philosophy #25)
by Andrei MarmorSocial conventions are those arbitrary rules and norms governing the countless behaviors all of us engage in every day without necessarily thinking about them, from shaking hands when greeting someone to driving on the right side of the road. In this book, Andrei Marmor offers a pathbreaking and comprehensive philosophical analysis of conventions and the roles they play in social life and practical reason, and in doing so challenges the dominant view of social conventions first laid out by David Lewis. Marmor begins by giving a general account of the nature of conventions, explaining the differences between coordinative and constitutive conventions and between deep and surface conventions. He then applies this analysis to explain how conventions work in language, morality, and law. Marmor clearly demonstrates that many important semantic and pragmatic aspects of language assumed by many theorists to be conventional are in fact not, and that the role of conventions in the moral domain is surprisingly complex, playing mostly an auxiliary and supportive role. Importantly, he casts new light on the conventional foundations of law, arguing that the distinction between deep and surface conventions can be used to answer the prevalent objections to legal conventionalism. Social Conventions is a much-needed reappraisal of the nature of the rules that regulate virtually every aspect of human conduct.
Social Coordination Frameworks for Social Technical Systems
by Huib Aldewereld Olivier Boissier Virginia Dignum Pablo Noriega Julian PadgetThis book addresses the question of how to achieve social coordination in Socio-Cognitive Technical Systems (SCTS). SCTS are a class of Socio-Technical Systems that are complex, open, systems where several humans and digital entities interact in order to achieve some collective endeavour. The book approaches the question from the conceptual background of regulated open multiagent systems, with the question being motivated by their design and construction requirements. The book captures the collective effort of eight groups from leading research centres and universities, each of which has developed a conceptual framework for the design of regulated multiagent systems and most have also developed technological artefacts that support the processes from specification to implementation of that type of systems. The first, introductory part of the book describes the challenge of developing frameworks for SCTS and articulates the premises and the main concepts involved in those frameworks. The second part discusses the eight frameworks and contrasts their main components. The final part maps the new field by discussing the types of activities in which SCTS are likely to be used, the features that such uses will exhibit, and the challenges that will drive the evolution of this field.
Social Credit: The Warring States of China’s Emerging Data Empire
by Vincent BrusseeChina’s Social Credit System has fundamentally re-shaped of surveillance worldwide, with discussions of it making it into hundreds of media headlines and all the way into European Union legislation and the United Nations. Social Credit offers one of the first comprehensive assessments of this infamous system. It is aimed at the many experts and professionals – both scholarly and more broadly – that have to deal with its fallout on a regular basis. In a concise format, it covers the questions that have garnered the most attention worldwide: from social credit scoring and blacklists to its history and theoretical foundation. Throughout, its core thesis is that more often than not, even China’s government is at a loss what to do with this messy and complex initiative. This has caused fragmented and low-tech implementation, but where insufficient legal safeguards can have far-reaching implications for the normal market order and for human rights.
Social Crime Prevention in the Developing World
by Heath GrantThis Brief explores the role of social crime prevention as a crime reduction strategy in the developing world. "Social crime prevention" focuses on the social and economic factors that may contribute to violence and criminal behavior in a community. Particularly in the developing world, an understanding of the socioeconomic and political context holds long-term potential for crime reduction (rather than crime displacement); however, the strategies are complex and the results may be slow. Generally, police and law enforcement are relied upon to present quick results, where social crime prevention strategies can be viewed as being "soft on crime" or too slow. This Brief discusses the tension between the traditional role of police and proactive social crime prevention strategies in an international context, through a variety of case studies. It also provides recommendations for balancing or reshaping this role. This work will be of interest to researchers and policy makers interested in crime prevention, particularly in the developing world, criminal theory, police studies and related disciplines such as demography, sociology and political science.
Social Crisis and Mental Health: Signs of Sanity
by Peter MorrallThis book focuses on the paradoxical effect of social crises on mental health. When crises occur, there's an upsurge of mental suffering due to an intensification of such social insanities as violence, inequality, and insecurity. Paradoxically, there are positive consequences due to acts of kindness, cooperation, and the ability to cope and hope. Two interconnected categories of social crises are covered in the book. These are as follows: contagions (for example, the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous outbreaks of plague and smallpox since medieval times, and the 1918 influenza pandemic); conflicts (including the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and aspects of world war such as the Holocaust, the use of nuclear bombs in the Second World War, and the climate emergency). What is also explored in the book is whether there is an amplification of everyday difficulties whereby having a ‘mental health problem’ has become normalised. The idea of ‘mental-healthism’ is introduced to explain the cultural shift towards this apparent normalisation of ordinary psychological suffering. The book will be of interest to students, practitioners, and researchers from sociology, psychology, nursing, social work, and psychiatry, among others.
Social Criticism: The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice and Other Essays (The Royal Society of Canada Special Publications)
by Stephen Leacock Alan BowkerStephen Leacock, long celebrated as Canada's foremost humorist and social satirist, has received little recognition for his considerable accomplishments as a serious thinker and social critic. In fact, Leacock was a professor of political economy, and more than half of his writings addressed the pressing issues of his day. This volume represents the neglected aspect of Leacock's career, gathering together his writings on a range of subjects, including imperialism, education and culture, religion and morality, feminism, prohibition, and social justice.The collection begins with 'Greater Canada: an appeal,' which dates from 1907, when Leacock was a popular lecturer advancing the cause of imperialism. Bowker points out that, for Leacock, imperialism was more a spiritual mission than a political agenda, representing the opportunity to unite Canadians, to inspire allegiance to a lofty tradition, and thereby to combat the threat of materialism, urbanism, fragmentation, and continentalism. These themes resurface in subsequent essays, culminating in The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice, which was published in 1920. Carefully selected, and prefaced with an updated introduction to Leacock's life and work, these essays contribute to our understanding of Leacock and illuminate his role as a major figure in Canadian intellectual history.
Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation
by Sabrina P. RametSocial Currents in Eastern Europe traces the diverse social currents that have developed alongside and interacted with political and economic forces to bring about change in Eastern Europe. In this second edition--which significantly updates and expands the previous edition to include a new introduction, revisions throughout, as well as five new chapters, including timely material on ethnic war in the former Yugoslavia--Ramet extends and develops the theory of social change upon which the book is based.Ramet draws on interviews conducted over a ten-year period with individuals active in arenas for social change--intellectual dissent, feminism, religious activism, youth cultures and movements, and trade unionism--in eight East European countries: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. She shows how the processes leading to the ultimate collapse of communism began more than a decade earlier and how they were necessarily manifested in spheres as diverse as religion and rock music.Ramet also examines the consequences of the "Great Transformation" and analyzes the numerous unresolved problems that these societies currently confront, whether it be in the arena of economics, political legitimation, or the challenges of establishing a civil society free of chauvinism.
Social DNA: Rethinking Our Evolutionary Past
by M. Kay MartinWhat set our ancestors off on a separate evolutionary trajectory was the ability to flex their reproductive and social strategies in response to changing environmental conditions. Exploring new cross-disciplinary research that links this capacity to critical changes in the organization of the primate brain, Social DNA presents a new synthesis of ideas on human social origins – challenging models that trace our beginnings to traits shaped by ancient hunting economies, or to genetic platforms shared with contemporary apes.
Social Darwinism in American Thought
by Richard HofstadterSocial Darwinism in American Thought portrays the overall influence of Darwin on American social theory and the notable battle waged among thinkers over the implications of evolutionary theory for social thought and political action. Theorists such as Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner adopted the idea of the struggle for existence as justification for the evils as well as the benefits of laissez-faire modern industrial society. Others such as William James and John Dewey argued that human planning was needed to direct social development and improve upon the natural order. Hofstadter's classic study of the ramifications of Darwinism is a major analysis of the social philosophies that animated intellectual movements of the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era.
Social Data Analytics in the Cloud with AI
by Xinyue Ye Xuebin WeiThe rise of cloud computing and Generative artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized data analytics pipelines. Analysts can collect, store, and process vast datasets in the cloud with high availability and scalability, and also leverage Generative AI to query and visualize datasets in natural languages. This pioneering textbook provides a gateway for students, educators, and professionals to develop and enhance social data analytics capabilities with the latest cloud computing and AI technologies. The textbook introduces educational cloud resources from leading technology companies, begins with foundational concepts, and progresses to advanced techniques.Features The first textbook on cloud-based social data analytics with the assistance of Generative AI. Introduces educational cloud resources from leading technology companies like AWS, GitHub, and MongoDB. Presents a fully AI-powered data analytics pipeline from Python coding to data collection with APIs, cloud-based data storage, natural language queries, and interactive visualization. Analyzes Census and social media data with the latest large language models (LLMs). Provides hands-on exercises with real-world datasets on timely issues. This textbook is an excellent resource for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students taking GIS, Urban Informatics, Social Science Data Analysis, and Data Science courses; faculty members teaching such courses; and professionals and researchers interested in leveraging cloud computing and Generative AI in social data analytics.
Social Data Science Xennials: Between Analogue and Digital Social Research
by Gian Marco CampagnoloThis book explores the tension between analogue and digital as part of an evolving research programme and focuses on the sequencing of methods within it. The book will be an invaluable reference for scholars who routinely engage in critical sociological analysis of the digital workplace and find it easier to treat the digital as an object of study. It describes how the transformations taking place in the 10-year arc of a career spent doing fieldwork in the IT sector led the author to progressively embrace new forms of data and methods. In a time where sociological imagination takes the shape of whatever new phenomenon can be studied by transactional data and machine learning methods, it is a reminder that longstanding engagement with a particular field of practice is the basis of empirical social science expertise. ‘This short book by Gian Marco Campagnolo is remarkably wide-ranging. It draws on theoretical perspectives as varied as Harold Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology and Andrew Abbott’s ‘linked ecologies’ to discuss topics as diverse as the adoption of packaged enterprise software in the public sector in Italy and the careers of often influential industry analysts. Campagnolo’s methods are primarily qualitative and ethnographic, but he shows a proper appreciation for quantitative methods such as text mining and sequence analysis. The book ends with a discussion of the famously difficult issue of achieving ‘explainability’ in machine learning. Campagnolo tantalisingly suggests the usefulness here of how ethnomethodologists view ‘accountability’: as a practical accomplishment that is hampered, rather than fostered, by efforts to give full explanations.’ —Donald MacKenzie, Professor of Sociology, Edinburgh University, Scotland‘The author adopts a ‘processual’ perspective on social data science as means of exploring and reflecting on the emergence of an academic career within this new domain of interdisciplinary inquiry. This is certainly a novel and interesting approach given the fact that ‘data science’ is work in progress and is characterized by a number of competing occupational groups that are struggling to define this emerging field.’—William Housley, Professor, University of Cardiff, UK‘Having myself written about the relationships between ethnography and computer science, I see this book as a timely contribution in that it extends the existing debate to data science. Data science is an emerging discipline that is gaining central stage in industry and in the public discourse. The aim of this book to indicate the importance of interdisciplinarity in this field is commendable.’—Giolo Fele, Professor, University of Trento, Italy'This book provides two entwined accounts: a reflective personal journey across different projects and methods and a grounded, genealogically sound analysis of the approaches and contributions of social science to understanding the digital society. These dual accounts are adroitly communicated. Their bold combination yields a unique and invaluable contribution to fundamental discussions in the social sciences, as well as an exemplar for how to combine ethnographic and data-driven analysis in a theoretically and epistemologically informed manner. With this book, Campagnolo brings us close to the methods and opens up an inspiring and challenging agenda for combining old and new forms of inquiry into sociological problems.' —Anne Beaulieu, Director Data Research Centre, University of Groningen, Netherlands
Social Death: Racialized Rightlessness and the Criminalization of the Unprotected (Nation of Nations #7)
by Lisa Marie CachoWinner of the 2013 John Hope Franklin Book Prize presented by the American Studies AssociationA necessary read that demonstrates the ways in which certain people are devalued without attention to social contextsSocial Death tackles one of the core paradoxes of social justice struggles and scholarship—that the battle to end oppression shares the moral grammar that structures exploitation and sanctions state violence. Lisa Marie Cacho forcefully argues that the demands for personhood for those who, in the eyes of society, have little value, depend on capitalist and heteropatriarchal measures of worth.With poignant case studies, Cacho illustrates that our very understanding of personhood is premised upon the unchallenged devaluation of criminalized populations of color. Hence, the reliance of rights-based politics on notions of who is and is not a deserving member of society inadvertently replicates the logic that creates and normalizes states of social and literal death. Her understanding of inalienable rights and personhood provides us the much-needed comparative analytical and ethical tools to understand the racialized and nationalized tensions between racial groups. Driven by a radical, relentless critique, Social Death challenges us to imagine a heretofore “unthinkable” politics and ethics that do not rest on neoliberal arguments about worth, but rather emerge from the insurgent experiences of those negated persons who do not live by the norms that determine the productive, patriotic, law abiding, and family-oriented subject.
Social Democracy in Capitalist Society (Routledge Revivals): Working-Class Politics in Britain and Sweden
by Richard ScaseFirst published in 1977. This book considers the nature of industrial society, contemporary capitalism and the impact of political ideas on social structure. These ideas are discussed by reference to the impact of social democracy on the structure of capitalist society in a comparative analysis of Britain and Sweden — including an interview survey of industrial workers socio-political attitudes. The study is concluded by a general discussion of the role of social democracy in capitalist society. It is argued that the development of social democracy generates ‘strains’ which, in the long term, question the legitimacy of capitalism among industrial manual workers.
Social Democracy in East Timor (Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series)
by Rebecca StratingSince the end of the Cold War, considerable scholarly debates have been devoted to the nature and scope of international state-building interventions in ‘fragile’, post-colonial states and their effectiveness in instituting democratic rule. By examining the construction of political institutions in East Timor, this book highlights the relationship between the social and political realms during these processes. Focusing on the roles of East Timorese leaders and civil society organisations during the independence movement, it analyses the effectiveness of democracy building in East Timor. It examines the processes of drafting the new constitution, establishing key political institutions (such as the electoral system), and articulating a new vision of citizenship and social justice. The book argues that East Timor offers a relatively successful case of democratic transition, enabled by a consistent set of goals and aspirations, grassroots political legitimacy and participation, and the development of a democratic civil nation. Offering a coherent argument for why democracy has been successful in East Timor and the roles of political leaders and civil society during democratic transition, this book will be of interest to those studying Southeast Asian Politics, International Politics, and Democracy.
Social Democratic Criminology: Towards A Social Democratic Criminology (New Directions in Critical Criminology)
by Robert ReinerThis book argues that ‘social democratic criminology’ is an important critical perspective which is essential for the analysis of crime and criminal justice and crucial for humane and effective policy. The end of World War II resulted in 30 years of strategies to create a more peaceful international order. In domestic policy, all Western countries followed agendas informed by a social democratic sensibility. Social Democratic Criminology argues that the social democratic consensus has been pulled apart since the late 1960s, by the hegemony of neoliberalism: a resuscitation of nineteenth-century free market economics. There is now a gathering storm of apocalyptic dangers from climate change, pandemics, antibiotic resistance, and other existential threats. This book shows that the neoliberal revolution of the rich pushed aside social democratic values and policies regarding crime and security and replaced them with tougher ‘law and order’ approaches. The initial consequence was a tsunami of crime in all senses. Smarter security techniques did succeed in abating this for a while, but the decade of austerity in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis has seen growing violent and serious crime. Social Democratic Criminology charts the history of social democracy, discusses the variety of conflicting ways in which it has been interpreted, and identifies its core uniting concepts and influence on criminology in the twentieth century. It analyses the decline of social democratic criminology and the sustained intellectual and political attacks it has endured. The concluding chapter looks at the prospects for reviving social democratic criminology, itself dependent on the prospects for a rebirth of the broader social democratic movement. Written in a clear and direct style, this book will appeal to students and scholars of criminology, sociology, cultural studies, politics, history, social policy, and all those interested in social democracy and its importance for society.
Social Demography of South Africa: Advances and Emerging Issues
by Clifford O. Odimegwu John KekovoleThis edited collection investigates what progress has been made in the field of social demography in South Africa since the democratic dispensation in the country. Contributors offer a compilation of in-depth analytical studies of substantive, technical and contemporary issues in the South African demographic landscape. Accessible and topical, it is a useful reference guide to those working in disciplines such as sociology, geography, statistics and economics, and to all those trying to understand the role of national statistical agency in national development planning in Africa. This book project is funded by Statistics South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.
Social Determinants of Health in Europe: Direct and Indirect Consequences of War
by Adrian BonnerDrawing on the perspectives of women and children displaced from Ukraine, as well as local authority policy makers and service providers, this book provides a unique view of the direct and indirect consequences of war in Europe. Part of the Social Determinants of Health series, this book reviews the socioeconomic challenges faced by the UK and other European countries and suggests ways that these ‘wicked issues’ should be addressed. It is essential reading for local authorities, national governments and humanitarian organisations.