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History of Romanian Technology and Industry: Volume 1: Mechanics, Processing Techniques and Construction (History of Mechanism and Machine Science #44)
by Dorel BanabicThis volume showcases the valuable achievements of the Romanian technology and industry worldwide. It started from the premise that the history of Romanian technique is scarcely known outside the borders of Romania. The main Romanian contributions to the world’s technological heritage are missing, except for a few names in the field of aviation, from the great encyclopedias and dictionaries published worldwide. This is due, among other reasons, to the insufficient promotion in widely spoken languages of the history of Romanian technology. The multidisciplinary approach of the volumes means that the field of technology had to be split into several branches. The present volume includes the following industries: mining, metallurgy, oil, natural gas, machine building, agricultural machinery, military, textiles, and construction. Folk technology, the formation of the industrial system, and mechanics are tackled in separate chapters. For each field, are engaged the collaboration of authors who have already published a history of their field. Certain chapters were drafted with the aid of specialists who have played the part of policy makers in the elaboration of development strategies for Romania and who are familiar not only with the facts and the history of their field, but also with the ‘philosophy’ behind its development.
A History of Submarine Warfare Along the Jersey Shore (Military)
by Joseph G. Billy Harry ZieglerThe ingenious people of the Garden State were instrumental in the early development of the submarine. The first American submarine sank off Fort Lee in 1776, and the first successful one adopted by the U.S. Navy was invented by Paterson's John Holland at the end of the nineteenth century. Those early vessels were tested in the Passaic River and on the Jersey City waterfront. Today, the only surviving Union Civil War submarine, built in Newark, sits in the National Guard Militia Museum in Sea Girt. In 1918, the technology pioneered there was turned against the Jersey Shore when U-151 went on a one-day ship-sinking rampage. A World War II U-boat offensive torpedoed numerous ships off the coast, leaving oil-soaked beaches strewn with wreckage. Authors Joseph G. Bilby and Harry Ziegler reveal the remarkable history of submarines off the New Jersey coastline.
A History of Technology and Environment: From stone tools to ecological crisis
by Edward L. GoldingThis book provides an accessible overview of the ways that key areas of technology have impacted global ecosystems and natural communities. It offers a new way of thinking about the overall origins of environmental problems. Combining approaches drawn from environmental biology and the history of science and technology, it describes the motivations behind many technical advances and the settings in which they occurred, before tracing their ultimate environmental impacts. Four broad areas of human activity are described: over-harvesting of natural resources using the examples of hunting, fishing and freshwater use; farming, population, land use, and migration; discovery, synthesis and use of manufactured chemicals; and development of sources of artificial energy and the widespread pollution caused by power generation and energy use. These innovations have been driven by various forces, but in most cases new technologies have emerged out of fascinating, psychologically rich, human experiences. This book provides an introduction to these complex developments and will be essential reading for students of science, technology and society, environmental history, and the history of science and technology.
A History of Technoscience: Erasing the Boundaries between Science and Technology (History and Philosophy of Technoscience)
by David F. ChannellAre science and technology independent of one another? Is technology dependent upon science, and if so, how is it dependent? Is science dependent upon technology, and if so how is it dependent? Or, are science and technology becoming so interdependent that the line dividing them has become totally erased? This book charts the history of technoscience from the late nineteenth century to the end of the twentieth century and shows how the military–industrial–academic complex and big science combined to create new examples of technoscience in such areas as the nuclear arms race, the space race, the digital age, and the new worlds of nanotechnology and biotechnology.
The History of the Computer: People, Inventions, and Technology that Changed Our World
by Rachel IgnotofskyA strikingly illustrated overview of the computing machines that have changed our world—from the abacus to the smartphone—and the people who made them, by the New York Times bestselling author and illustrator of Women in Science.Computers are everywhere and have impacted our lives in so many ways. But who created them, and why? How have they transformed the way that we interact with our surroundings and each other?Packed with accessible information, fun facts, and discussion starters, this charming and art-filled book takes you from the ancient world to the modern day, focusing on important inventions, from the earliest known counting systems to the sophisticated algorithms behind AI. The History of the Computer also profiles a diverse range of key players and creators—from An Wang and Margaret Hamilton to Steve Jobs and Sir Tim Berners-Lee—and illuminates their goals, their intentions, and the impact of their inventions on our everyday lives. This entertaining and educational journey will help you understand our most important machines and how we can use them to enhance the way we live. You&’ll never look at your phone the same way again!
The History of the Computer: People, Inventions, And Technology That Changed Our World
by Rachel IgnotofskyExplore the fascinating history of the computer, and the people who made them, in this beautifully illustrated guide for children by bestselling author and illustrator Rachel Ignotofsky.Computers make our lives easier in so many ways - they help us do our work, get directions, check the weather, exercise, shop and understand what's happening around the world. But who created them, and why? How have they transformed the way we interact with our surroundings and each other?Packed with accessible information, fun facts and discussion starters, this charmingly illustrated book takes you from the ancient world to the modern day, focusing on important inventions from the earliest known counting systems (such as the Incan quipu) to the sophisticated algorithms behind AI, space travel and wearable tech. The History of the Computer also profiles a global and diverse range of key players and creators - from An Wang and Margaret Hamilton to Steve Jobs and Tim Berners-Lee - and illuminates their goals, their intentions and the impact of their inventions on our everyday lives.This entertaining and educational journey from the bestselling author of Women in Science will help you understand our most important machines and how we can use them to enhance the way we live. You'll never look at your phone the same way again!
History of the Fire Companies of Frederick County, Maryland
by Clarence "Chip" JewellOrganized fire protection in Frederick County, Maryland, existed before the adoption of the Constitution. Follow the colorful history of the fire companies from the first fire engine in 1764 to the fire company militia units that were summoned to Harper's Ferry and fire halls used during the Civil War. Learn how the fire companies in Frederick County had statewide influence by organizing the Maryland State Firemen's Association in 1893. Read of the tradition of fire engines "throwing water over the town clock"--sometimes to test performance, other times just for bragging rights. Local author and volunteer firefighter Chip Jewell provides a snapshot of how each fire company was organized from the early 1800s to the most recent companies in the 1970s.
The History of the Future: Oculus, Facebook, and the Revolution That Swept Virtual Reality
by Blake J. HarrisThe author of Console Wars reveals the story behind Oculus and its quest for virtual reality: “Masterful . . . filled with unforgettable characters” (Forbes).From iconic books like Neuromancer to blockbuster films like The Matrix, virtual reality has offered a tantalizing vision of the future. But outside of a few research labs and military training facilities, this technology was mere science fiction. Until 2012, when Oculus founder Palmer Luckey—then just a teenage dreamer living alone in a camper trailer—invents a device that has the potential to change the world.With the help of a videogame legend, a serial entrepreneur, and many other colorful characters, Luckey’s scrappy startup kickstarts a revolution and sets out to bring VR to the masses. What follows is the ultimate entrepreneurial journey, a tale of battles won and lost, lessons learned and shocking turns—including an unlikely multi-billion-dollar acquisition by Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg.Drawing on over a hundred interviews with the key players driving this revolution, The History of the Future weaves together a rich, cinematic narrative that captures the breakthroughs, breakdowns, and human drama of trying to change the world. The result is a supremely entertaining look at the birth of a game-changing new industry.
A History of the Future: Prophets of Progress from H. G. Wells to Isaac Asimov
by Peter J. BowlerIn this wide-ranging survey, Peter J. Bowler explores the phenomenon of futurology: predictions about the future development and impact of science and technology on society and culture in the twentieth century. Utilising science fiction, popular science literature and the novels of the literary elite, Bowler highlights contested responses to the potential for revolutionary social change brought about by real and imagined scientific innovations. Charting the effect of social and military developments on attitudes towards innovation in Europe and America, Bowler shows how conflict between the enthusiasm of technocrats and the pessimism of their critics was presented to the public in books, magazines and exhibitions, and on the radio and television. A series of case studies reveals the impact of technologies such as radio, aviation, space exploration and genetics, exploring rivalries between innovators and the often unexpected outcome of their efforts to produce mechanisms and machines that could change the world.
A History of the Italian Space Adventure: Pioneers and Achievements from the XIVth Century to the Present
by Giovanni CapraraThis well-documented and fascinating book tells how, over the centuries, a series of visionaries, scientists, technologists, and politicians fostered the involvement of Italy in space exploration. The lives of these pioneers was often far from easy, yet they persevered. The fruits of their efforts can today be witnessed in Italy’s success within the cutting-edge space sector. Italy’s history in space started at the end of the fourteenth century and continued with the development of fireworks. Later, the nineteenth century marked the beginning of research into rockets in a more scientific way. After World War II, rocket technology was advanced with the aid of German scientists, and in the 1960s Luigi Broglio, the father of Italian space exploration, designed the San Marco satellite. In 1979 the first Italian Space Plan was launched, but it was the foundation of the Italian Space Agency in 1988 that kick-started a program of exploration in various fields of cosmic research. The outcome was construction of the Vega launcher and collaboration in the International Space Station. Now the Italian space industry stands ready to play an important role in the Gateway orbital station. All of this history, and more, is explored in this riveting book.
The History of the Laser
by Mario BertolottiSince the invention of the first working laser in 1960, development of these devices has progressed at an unprecedented rate, to the extent that the laser is now a common part of everyday life, from the semiconductor laser used in CD players and telecommunication systems to the high power eximer lasers used in manufacturing processes. This book tra
The History of the London Underground Map
by Caroline RoopeFew transportation maps can boast the pedigree that London’s iconic ‘Tube’ map can. Sported on t-shirts, keyrings, duvet covers, and most recently, downloaded an astonishing twenty million times in app form, the map remains a long-standing icon of British design and ingenuity. Hailed by the art and design community as a cultural artifact, it has also inspired other culturally important pieces of artwork, and in 2006 was voted second in BBC 2’s Great British Design Test. But it almost didn’t make it out of the notepad it was designed in. The story of how the Underground map evolved is almost as troubled and fraught with complexities as the transport network it represents. Mapping the Underground was not for the faint-hearted – it rapidly became a source of frustration, and in some cases obsession – often driving its custodians to the point of distraction. The solution, when eventually found, would not only revolutionise the movement of people around the city but change the way we visualise London forever. Caroline Roope’s wonderfully researched book casts the Underground in a new light, placing the world’s most famous transit network and its even more famous map in its wider historical and cultural context, revealing the people not just behind the iconic map, but behind the Underground’s artistic and architectural heritage. From pioneers to visionaries, disruptors to dissenters – the Underground has had them all – as well as a constant stream of (often disgruntled) passengers. It is thanks to the legacy of a host of reformers that the Tube and the diagram that finally provided the key to understanding it, have endured as masterpieces of both engineering and design.
The History of the London Water Industry, 1580–1820
by Leslie TomoryHow did pre-industrial London build the biggest water supply industry on earth?Beginning in 1580, a number of competing London companies sold water directly to consumers through a large network of wooden mains in the expanding metropolis. This new water industry flourished throughout the 1600s, eventually expanding to serve tens of thousands of homes. By the late eighteenth century, more than 80 percent of the city’s houses had water connections—making London the best-served metropolis in the world while demonstrating that it was legally, commercially, and technologically possible to run an infrastructure network within the largest city on earth.In this richly detailed book, historian Leslie Tomory shows how new technologies imported from the Continent, including waterwheel-driven piston pumps, spurred the rapid growth of London’s water industry. The business was further sustained by an explosion in consumer demand, particularly in the city’s wealthy West End. Meanwhile, several key local innovations reshaped the industry by enlarging the size of the supply network. By 1800, the success of London’s water industry made it a model for other cities in Europe and beyond as they began to build their own water networks. The city’s water infrastructure even inspired builders of other large-scale urban projects, including gas and sewage supply networks.The History of the London Water Industry, 1580–1820 explores the technological, cultural, and mercantile factors that created and sustained this remarkable industry. Tomory examines how the joint-stock form became popular with water companies, providing a stable legal structure that allowed for expansion. He also explains how the roots of the London water industry’s divergence from the Continent and even from other British cities was rooted both in the size of London as a market and in the late seventeenth-century consumer revolution. This fascinating and unique study of essential utilities in the early modern period will interest business historians and historians of science and technology alike.
The History of the London Water Industry, 1580–1820
by Leslie TomoryThis in-depth study explores the technological, cultural, and mercantile factors behind the infrastructure that transformed early modern London.Beginning in 1580, a number of competing London companies sold water directly to consumers through a large network of wooden mains in the expanding metropolis. This new water industry flourished throughout the 1600s, eventually expanding to serve tens of thousands of homes. By the late eighteenth century, more than 80 percent of the city’s houses had water connections—making London the best-served metropolis in the world while demonstrating that it was legally, commercially, and technologically possible to run an infrastructure network within the largest city on earth.Historian Leslie Tomory shows how an explosion of consumer demand and new technologies imported from the Continent spurred the rapid growth of London’s water industry. Meanwhile, several key local innovations reshaped the industry by enlarging the size of the supply network. By 1800, the success of London’s water industry made it a model for cities across Europe and beyond. It even inspired builders of other large-scale urban projects, including gas and sewage supply networks.
A History of the Modern Chinese Navy, 1840–2020 (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia)
by Bruce A. EllemanThis book provides a comprehensive history of the modern Chinese navy from 1840 to the present. Beginning with a survey of naval developments in earlier imperial times, the book goes on to show how China has since the mid-19th century four times built or rebuilt its navy: after the Opium Wars, a navy which was sunk or captured by the Japanese in the war of 1894–1895; during the 1920s and 1930s, a navy again sunk or lost to Japan, in the war of 1937–1945; in the 1950s, a navy built with Soviet help, which stagnated following the Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s; and finally the present navy which absorbed its predecessor, but with the most modern sections dating from the 1990s—a navy which continues to grow and prosper. The book also shows how the underlying strategic imperative for the Chinese navy has been the defense of China’s coasts and major rivers; how naval mutiny was a key factor in the overthrow of the Qing and the Nationalist regimes; and how successive Chinese governments, aware of the potent threat of naval mutiny, have restricted the growth, independence, and capabilities of the navy. Overall, the book provides—at a time when many people in the West view China and its navy as a threat—a rich, detailed, and realistic assessment of the true nature of the Chinese navy and the contemporary factors that affect its development.
The History of the Port of London: A Vast Emporium of All Nations
by Peter Stone&“This meticulously researched account underlines the importance of the capital&’s docklands . . . from Roman landing to modern financial centre.&” —Discover Britain The River Thames has been integral to the prosperity of London since Roman times. Explorers sailed away on voyages of discovery to distant lands. Colonies were established and a great empire grew. Funding their ships and cargoes helped make the City of London into the world&’s leading financial center. In the nineteenth century a vast network of docks was created for ever-larger ships, behind high, prison-like walls that kept them secret from all those who did not toil within. Sail made way for steam as goods were dispatched to every corner of the world. In the nineteenth century London was the world&’s greatest port city. In the Second World War the Port of London became Hitler&’s prime target. It paid a heavy price but soon recovered. Yet by the end of the 20th century the docks had been transformed into Docklands, a new financial center. The History of the Port of London: A Vast Emporium of Nations is the fascinating story of the rise and fall and revival of the commercial river. The only book to tell the whole story and bring it right up to date, it charts the foundation, growth and evolution of the port and explains why for centuries it has been so important to Britain&’s prosperity. This book will appeal to those interested in London&’s history, maritime and industrial heritage, the Docklands and East End of London, and the River Thames.
History of the Space Shuttle, Volume Two
by T. A. HeppenheimerBasing his work on virtually untapped NASA archives, T. A. Heppenheimer has produced the second volume of his definitive history of the space shuttle. Volume Two traces the development of the shuttle through a decade of engineering setbacks and breakthroughs, program-management challenges, and political strategizing, culminating in the first launch in April 1981. The focus is on the engineering challenges--propulsion, thermal protection, electronics, onboard systems--and the author covers in depth the alternative vehicles developed by the U.S. Air Force and European countries. The first launch entailed a monumental amount of planning and preparation that Heppenheimer explains in detail.
The History of the Theory of Structures: Searching for Equilibrium (Edition Bautechnikgeschichte / Construction History)
by Karl-Eugen KurrerTen years after the publication of the first English edition of The History of the Theory of Structures, Dr. Kurrer now gives us a much enlarged second edition with a new subtitle: Searching for Equilibrium. The author invites the reader to take part in a journey through time to explore the equilibrium of structures. That journey starts with the emergence of the statics and strength of materials of Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo, and reaches its first climax with Coulomb's structural theories for beams, earth pressure and arches in the late 18th century. Over the next 100 years, Navier, Culmann, Maxwell, Rankine, Mohr, Castigliano and Müller-Breslau moulded theory of structures into a fundamental engineering science discipline that - in the form of modern structural mechanics - played a key role in creating the design languages of the steel, reinforced concrete, aircraft, automotive and shipbuilding industries in the 20th century. In his portrayal, the author places the emphasis on the formation and development of modern numerical engineering methods such as FEM and describes their integration into the discipline of computational mechanics. Brief insights into customary methods of calculation backed up by historical facts help the reader to understand the history of structural mechanics and earth pressure theory from the point of view of modern engineering practice. This approach also makes a vital contribution to the teaching of engineers. Dr. Kurrer manages to give us a real feel for the different approaches of the players involved through their engineering science profiles and personalities, thus creating awareness for the social context. The 260 brief biographies convey the subjective aspect of theory of structures and structural mechanics from the early years of the modern era to the present day. Civil and structural engineers and architects are well represented, but there are also biographies of mathematicians, physicists, mechanical engineers and aircraft and ship designers. The main works of these protagonists of theory of structures are reviewed and listed at the end of each biography. Besides the acknowledged figures in theory of structures such as Coulomb, Culmann, Maxwell, Mohr, Müller-Breslau, Navier, Rankine, Saint-Venant, Timoshenko and Westergaard, the reader is also introduced to G. Green, A. N. Krylov, G. Li, A. J. S. Pippard, W. Prager, H. A. Schade, A. W. Skempton, C. A. Truesdell, J. A. L. Waddell and H. Wagner. The pioneers of the modern movement in theory of structures, J. H. Argyris, R. W. Clough, T. v. Kármán, M. J. Turner and O. C. Zienkiewicz, are also given extensive biographical treatment. A huge bibliography of about 4,500 works rounds off the book. New content in the second edition deals with earth pressure theory, ultimate load method, an analysis of historical textbooks, steel bridges, lightweight construction, theory of plates and shells, Green's function, computational statics, FEM, computer-assisted graphical analysis and historical engineering science. The number of pages now exceeds 1,200 - an increase of 50% over the first English edition. This book is the first all-embracing historical account of theory of structures from the 16th century to the present day.
A History of Toilet Paper (and Other Potty Tools)
by Sophia GholzIn the beginning, potty time meant the great outdoors . . . People have been going potty since, well, since the beginning of people! Ever wonder what humans used before potties or paper? You might be surprised at the clever tools that humans came up with over the centuries. From the great outdoors to ceramic pots, bum brushes and bidets, prepare for an adventure as we explore the interesting and sometimes shocking history of human potty practices! Award-winning children&’s author Sophia Gholz and illustrator Xiana Teimoy team up to put a humorous spin on the fun and fascinating facts surrounding the history of toilet paper (and other potty tools) in this delightful book.
The History of Video Games
by Charlie FishThis book is a potted history of video games, telling all the rollercoaster stories of this fascinating young industry that’s now twice as big globally than the film and music industries combined. Each chapter explores the history of video games through a different lens, giving a uniquely well-rounded overview. Packed with pictures and stats, this book is for video gamers nostalgic for the good old days of gaming, and young gamers curious about how it all began. If you’ve ever enjoyed a video game, or you just want to see what all the fuss is about, this book is for you. There are stories about the experimental games of the 1950s and 1960s; the advent of home gaming in the 1970s; the explosion – and implosion – of arcade gaming in the 1980s; the console wars of the 1990s; the growth of online and mobile games in the 2000s; and we get right up to date with the 2010s, including such cultural phenomena as twitch.tv, the Gamergate scandal, and Fortnite. But rather than telling the whole story from beginning to end, each chapter covers the history of video games from a different angle: platforms and technology, people and personalities, companies and capitalism, gender and representation, culture, community, and finally the games themselves.
A History of Video Games in 64 Objects
by World Video Game Hall of FameInspired by the groundbreaking A History of the World in 100 Objects, this book draws on the unique collections of The Strong museum in Rochester, New York, to chronicle the evolution of video games, from Pong to first-person shooters, told through the stories of dozens of objects essential to the field’s creation and development.Drawing on the World Video Game Hall of Fame’s unmatched collection of video game artifacts, this fascinating history offers an expansive look at the development of one of the most popular and influential activities of the modern world: video gaming.Sixty-four unique objects tell the story of the video game from inception to today. Pithy, in-depth essays and photographs examine each object’s significance to video game play—what it has contributed to the history of gaming—as well as the greater culture.A History of Video Games in 64 Objects explains how the video game has transformed over time. Inside, you’ll find a wide range of intriguing topics, including:The first edition of Dungeons & Dragons—the ancestor of computer role-playing gamesThe Oregon Trail and the development of educational gamingThe Atari 2600 and the beginning of the console revolutionA World of Warcraft server blade and massively multiplayer online gamesMinecraft—the backlash against the studio systemThe rise of women in gaming represented by pioneering American video game designers Carol Shaw and Roberta Williams’ game development materialsThe prototype Skylanders Portal of Power that spawned the Toys-to-Life video game phenomenon and shook up the marketplaceAnd so much more!A visual panorama of unforgettable anecdotes and factoids, A History of Video Games in 64 Objects is a treasure trove for gamers and pop culture fans. Let the gaming begin!
History of Virtual Work Laws
by Danilo CapecchiThe book presents a history of classical mechanics by focusing on issues of equilibrium. The historical point of view adopted here restricts attention to cases where the effectiveness of forces is assessed on the basis of the virtual motion of their points of application. For completeness, hints of the alternative approach are also referred, the Archimedean for ancient mechanics and the Newtonian for modern mechanics. The laws resulting from consideration of virtual motions are named laws of virtual work. The modern formulations of the principle of virtual work are only a particular form of them. The book begins with the first documented formulations of laws of virtual work in the IV century BC in Greece and proceeds to the end of the XIX century AD in Europe. A significant space is devoted to Arabic and Latin mechanics of Middle Ages. With the Renaissance it began to appear slightly different wordings of the laws, which were often proposed as unique principles of statics. The process reached its apex with Bernoulli and Lagrange in the XVIII century. The book ends with some chapters dealing with the discussions that took place in the French school on the role of the Lagrangian version of the law of virtual work and its applications to continuum mechanics.
The History of Visual Magic in Computers
by Jon PeddieIf you have ever looked at a fantastic adventure or science fiction movie, or an amazingly complex and rich computer game, or a TV commercial where cars or gas pumps or biscuits behaved liked people and wondered, "How do they do that?", then you've experienced the magic of 3D worlds generated by a computer. 3D in computers began as a way to represent automotive designs and illustrate the construction of molecules. 3D graphics use evolved to visualizations of simulated data and artistic representations of imaginary worlds. In order to overcome the processing limitations of the computer, graphics had to exploit the characteristics of the eye and brain, and develop visual tricks to simulate realism. The goal is to create graphics images that will overcome the visual cues that cause disbelief and tell the viewer this is not real. Thousands of people over thousands of years have developed the building blocks and made the discoveries in mathematics and science to make such 3D magic possible, and The History of Visual Magic in Computers is dedicated to all of them and tells a little of their story. It traces the earliest understanding of 3D and then foundational mathematics to explain and construct 3D; from mechanical computers up to today's tablets. Several of the amazing computer graphics algorithms and tricks came of periods where eruptions of new ideas and techniques seem to occur all at once. Applications emerged as the fundamentals of how to draw lines and create realistic images were better understood, leading to hardware 3D controllers that drive the display all the way to stereovision and virtual reality.
The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula: Between the 16th and 19th Centuries (Trends in the History of Science)
by Ana Duarte Rodrigues Carmen Toribio MarínThis volume approaches the history of water in the Iberian Peninsula in a novel way, by linking it to the ongoing international debate on water crisis and solutions to overcome the lack of water in the Mediterranean.What water devices were found? What were the models for these devices? How were they distributed in the villas and monastic enclosures? What impact did hydraulic theoretical knowledge have on these water systems, and how could these systems impact on hydraulic technology? Guided by these questions, this book covers the history of water in the most significant cities, the role of water in landscape transformation, the irrigation systems and water devices in gardens and villas, and, lastly, the theoretical and educational background on water management and hydraulics in the Iberian Peninsula between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries.Historiography on water management in the territory that is today Spain has highlighted the region’s role as a mediator between the Islamic masters of water and the Christian world. The history of water in Portugal is less known, and it has been taken for granted that is similar to its neighbour. This book compares two countries that have the same historical roots and, therefore, many similar stories, but at the same time, offers insights into particular aspects of each country. It is recommended for scholars and researchers interested in any field of history of the early modern period and of the nineteenth century, as well as general readers interested in studies on the Iberian Peninsula, since it was the role model for many settlements in South America, Asia and Africa.